1. Perspectives on Research Methodology Darleen Opfer

2. Behind the welter of names – positivism, naturalism, post- positivism, relativism, feminist standpoint epistemology, foundationalism, postmodernism, each with an array of sub-species – lie important questions: Is there a single, absolute truth about educational phenomena, or are there multiple truth? (Or is the concept of truth itself so problematic as to be of no value in understanding the world?) Can we count on our senses or on reason, to distinguish that which is true about the world from that which is false? Are there methods that can lead us close to understanding, or are there inherent indeterminancies in all methods? Is knowledge of the world discovered, or constructed? Can knowledge of the world be evaluated independent of the social and historical contexts in which it exists, or is it always contingent upon, or relative to, particular circumstances? (Pallas, 2003, p.6)

3. What methods do you propose to use? What methods do you propose to use? What methodology governs your choice and use of the methods? What methodology governs your choice and use of the methods? What theoretical perspective lies behind the methodology in question? What theoretical perspective lies behind the methodology in question? What epistemology informs this theoretical perspective? What epistemology informs this theoretical perspective?

4. Methods – the techniques or procedures used to gather and analyze data related to some research question of hypothesis Methods – the techniques or procedures used to gather and analyze data related to some research question of hypothesis Methodology – the strategy, plan of action, process or design lying behind the choice and use of particular methods and linking the choice and use of methods to desired outcomes. Methodology – the strategy, plan of action, process or design lying behind the choice and use of particular methods and linking the choice and use of methods to desired outcomes. Theoretical perspective: the philosophical stance informing the methodology and thus providing a context for the process and grounding its logic and criteria. Theoretical perspective: the philosophical stance informing the methodology and thus providing a context for the process and grounding its logic and criteria. Epistemology: the theory of knowledge embedded in the theoretical perspective and thereby in the methodology. (how we know what we know) Epistemology: the theory of knowledge embedded in the theoretical perspective and thereby in the methodology. (how we know what we know)

5. Why Understand Research Epistemology and Ontology? to understand the interrelationship of the key components of research (including methodology and methods); to understand the interrelationship of the key components of research (including methodology and methods); to avoid confusion when discussing theoretical debates and approaches to social phenomena; and to avoid confusion when discussing theoretical debates and approaches to social phenomena; and to be able to recognize others’, and defend our own, positions. to be able to recognize others’, and defend our own, positions.

6. Ontology claims and assumptions that are made about the nature of social reality, claims about what exists, what it looks like, what units make it up and how these units interact with each other. In short, ontological assumptions are concerned with what we believe constitutes social reality.’Blaikie, 2000, p. 8

7. Epistemology the possible ways of gaining knowledge of social reality, whatever it is understood to be. In short, claims about how what is assumed to exist can be known. Blaikie, 2000, p. 8

8. Fish is Fish by: Leo Lionni

9. Epistemological Assumptions Objectivity believes that knowledge exists whether we are conscious of it or not. Objectivity believes that knowledge exists whether we are conscious of it or not. Constructionist believes that we come to “know” through our interactions. Constructionist believes that we come to “know” through our interactions. Subjectivity believes that everyone has a different understanding of what we know. Subjectivity believes that everyone has a different understanding of what we know.

10. Activity 1: Language Use in Abstracts Read the abstracts provided and underline words which you think may illustrate the epistemological assumptions of the researcher.

11. epistemology theoretical perspective methodology methods

12. OntologyEpistemologyMethodologyMethodsSources What’s out there to know? What and how can we know about it? How can we go about acquiring knowledge? What procedures can we use to acquire it? Which data can we collect? Adapted from Hay, 2002, pg. 64

13. Epistemology Theoretical Perspective MethodologyMethods ObjectivismConstructionismSubjectivism (and their variants) PositivismPost-positivismInterpretivism  Symbolic interactionsim  Phenomenology  Hermeneutics PragmatismParticipatory –Critical inquiry –Feminism Postmodernism(etc.) Experimental research Survey research Ethnography Phenomenological research Grounded theory Heuristic inquiry Action research Discourse analysis Feminist standpoint research Case Study (etc.)Sampling Measurement and scaling QuestionnaireObservation  Participant  Non-participant Interview Focus group Case study Life history Narrative Visual ethnographic methods Statistical analysis Data reduction Theme identification Comparative analysis Cognitive mapping Interpretative methods Document analysis Content analysis Conversation analysis (etc.)

14. Epistemological Continuum Post-Positivism Positivism Interpretivism Pragmatism Participatory Postmodern ObjectivitySubjectivity

15. Epistemological History Post-Positivism Positivism Interpretivism Pragmatism Participatory Postmodern

16. Assumptions of Post - Positivism Absolute truth can never be found. Absolute truth can never be found. Research is a process of making claims and then testing, refining or abandoning some of them for other claims more strongly warranted. Research is a process of making claims and then testing, refining or abandoning some of them for other claims more strongly warranted. Data, evidence and rational considerations shape knowledge. Data, evidence and rational considerations shape knowledge. Research seeks to develop relevant, true statements that can serve to explain the situation that is of concern or that describes the causal relationship of interest. Research seeks to develop relevant, true statements that can serve to explain the situation that is of concern or that describes the causal relationship of interest. Researchers must examine their methods and conclusions and control or limit bias. Researchers must examine their methods and conclusions and control or limit bias.

17. Assumptions of Interpretivism Meanings are constructed by humans as they engage with the world they are interpreting. Meanings are constructed by humans as they engage with the world they are interpreting. Humans make sense of the world based on their historical and social perspective. They seek to understand the context and then make an interpretation of what they find which is shaped by their own experiences and backgrounds. Humans make sense of the world based on their historical and social perspective. They seek to understand the context and then make an interpretation of what they find which is shaped by their own experiences and backgrounds. The basic generation of meaning is always social. The basic generation of meaning is always social.

18. Assumptions of Participatory Participatory research is recursive and dialectical and is focused on bring about change in practices. Participatory research is recursive and dialectical and is focused on bring about change in practices. Begins with a stance about the problems in society. Begins with a stance about the problems in society. It is emancipatory. It is emancipatory. It is inquiry completed with others rather than on or to others. It is inquiry completed with others rather than on or to others. The research process is cyclical. The research process is cyclical.

19. Assumptions of Pragmatism Is not committed to any one system of philosophy or reality. Is not committed to any one system of philosophy or reality. Individual researchers have freedom of choice to select procedures that best meet their needs. Individual researchers have freedom of choice to select procedures that best meet their needs. Pragmatists do not see the world as an absolute unity. Pragmatists do not see the world as an absolute unity. Truth is what works at the time. Truth is what works at the time. We need to stop asking questions about reality and the laws of nature and start solving problems. We need to stop asking questions about reality and the laws of nature and start solving problems.

20. Objectivist Post - Positivist Survey Research Statistical Analysis Putnam’s Social Capital

21. Constructionist Interpretive Case Study Interviews Coleman’s Social Capital

22. Activity 2: Your Own Research Diagram Use the blank Crotty Diagram to identify the chain that seems to underlie your own research interests. We will share these when finished.

23. Epistemology Theoretical Perspective MethodologyMethods ObjectivismConstructionismSubjectivism (and their variants) PositivismPost-positivismInterpretivism  Symbolic interactionsim  Phenomenology  Hermeneutics PragmatismParticipatory –Critical inquiry –Feminism Postmodernism(etc.) Experimental research Survey research Ethnography Phenomenological research Grounded theory Heuristic inquiry Action research Discourse analysis Feminist standpoint research (etc.)Sampling Measurement and scaling QuestionnaireObservation  Participant  Non-participant Interview Focus group Case study Life history Narrative Visual ethnographic methods Statistical analysis Data reduction Theme identification Comparative analysis Cognitive mapping Interpretative methods Document analysis Content analysis Conversation analysis (etc.)