1. What is Knowledge?

2. “organised common sense” Imagine a mental map of reality: your ideas of true and false, right and wrong, reasonable and unreasonable, believable and unbelievable… No-one says you should abandon it, but you should put it under critical scrutiny ….

3. How accurate is this world map? How is it based on arbitrary conventions? In what ways is it culturally biased?

4. How about this one? The map is not the territory

5. Problems with the ‘common sense’ approach Culturally biased and based on arbitrary conventions? Vague and untested belief? Prejudice, hearsay and blind appeals to authority?

6. “certainty” Distinguishes knowledge from belief. Truth without doubt. Language Perception Reason Emotion I think, therefore I am

7. “relativism” No absolute objective truth Knowledge is relative to the individual, culture or society This may be safer for ethics, politics & religion. But what about maths and science? I knew the Earth was flat I know Santa Claus exists

8. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified. “justified, true belief”

9. Requires: Evidence – reasonable & positive evidence that supports & justifies belief. Coherence – does this fit with our current understanding? Can you see any problems with these requirements?

10. Confirmation bias – tendancy to notice only evidence that supports our views Argument ad ignorantium – the fact that you can’t prove something isn’t true, does not show that it is true (e.g. existence of aliens) Coherence – the need for coherence could take us back to the ‘common sense’ definition… Is judgment more important than proof?

11. Logical fallacies

12. The more churches there are in a city, the more prostitutes there are.

13. People who have a tattoo are more likely to develop lung cancer. This is true.

14. Connor says that he knows someone who is 90 and who has smoked 40 cigarettes a day for 75 years and he’s OK, so smoking can’t be harmful.

15. Eleanor bought a good luck charm and he seems to be doing better at school.

16. Post hoc ergo propter hoc Assuming one thing causes another just because one follows another. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press

17. A summary of common fallacies

18. Ad ignorantiam Claiming that something is true because it cannot be proved to be false. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press

19. Hasty generalisation Generalising from insufficient evidence. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press

20. Ad hominem Attacking /supporting the person rather than the argument. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press

21. Circular reasoning Assuming the truth of what you are supposed to be proving. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press

22. Special pleading Using double standards to excuse an individual or group. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press

23. Equivocation Using language ambiguously. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press

24. False analogy Assuming that because two things are alike in one way that they are alike in other respects. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press

25. False dilemma Assuming that only a limited number of alternatives exist. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press

26. Loaded question A question that is biased because it contains a built-in assumption. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press

27. In each of the following cases, decide which best applies to the argument. Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.

28. 1. Since strict gun control laws were introduced in Dodge City, the crime rate has risen. This shows that gun control does nothing to reduce crime. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.

29. post hoc ergo propter hoc Since strict gun control laws were introduced in Dodge City, the crime rate has risen. This shows that gun control does nothing to reduce crime.

30. 2. Emmeline said she trusted me, and she must be telling the truth because she wouldn’t lie to someone that she trusted. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.

31. circular reasoning Emmeline said she trusted me, and she must be telling the truth because she wouldn’t lie to someone that she trusted. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press

32. 3. The ends justifies the means. After all, if you want to make omelettes, you have to break eggs. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.

33. false analogy The ends justifies the means. After all, if you want to make omelettes, you have to break eggs.

34. 4. That can’t be right, non of my friends would believe it. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.

35. ad hominem That can’t be right, non of my friends would believe it.

36. 5. Since many great scientists have believed in God, there must be some truth in religion. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.

37. ad hominem Since many great scientists have believed in God, there must be some truth in religion.

38. 6. Teddy and Seanne got on very well on their two dates together. They are clearly well suited and should get married. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.

39. hasty generalisation Teddy and Seanne got on very well on their two dates together. They are clearly well suited and should get married.

40. 7. Do you want to be part of the solution, or part of the problem? Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press

41. false dilemma Do you want to be part of the solution, or part of the problem?

42. 8. “I agree that you shouldn’t copy mp3s illegally, but I’ve only copied a few and I do buy tracks sometimes.” “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.

43. special pleading “I agree that you shouldn’t copy mp3s illegally, but I’ve only copied a few and I do buy tracks sometimes.”

44. 9. The average UK family has 2.5 children. The Smiths are average people, they must have 2.5 kids. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.

45. equivocation The average UK family has 2.5 children. The Smiths are average people, they must have 2.5 kids.

46. 10. Since no-one has been able to prove that God didn’t create the universe, we must conclude that God did make everything. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.

47. ad ignorantium Since no-one has been able to prove that God didn’t create the universe, we must conclude that God did make everything.

48. 11. Are all your family stupid, or is it just you? “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.

49. loaded question Are all your family stupid, or is it just you?

50. 12. No scandal has ever touched Mr Porter. He must be a clean living and honest man. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.

51. ad ignorantium No scandal has ever touched Mr Porter. He must be a clean living and honest man.

52. 13. Just as you are more likely to take care of a car that you own rather than a car that you rent, a slave owner would look after a slave better than an employer would look after their worker. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.

53. false analogy Just as you are more likely to take care of a car that you own rather than a car that you rent, a slave owner would look after a slave better than an employer would look after their worker.

54. 14. To ignore the possibility that Norway landed the first person on the moon just because nobody has heard of a Norwegian space program is arrogant. If we are unaware of something does not mean that it never happened. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.

55. ad ignorantium To ignore the possibility that Norway landed the first person on the moon just because nobody has heard of a Norwegian space program is arrogant. If we are unaware of something does not mean that it never happened.

56. 15. In the fight against terrorism, you are either with the USA or against. “Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.

57. false dilemma In the fight against terrorism, you are either with the USA or against.

58. Definition Try-Out I Know Neil Armstrong landed on the moon in 1969. I know that strawberries are red. abb cacI know that if a is bigger than b, and b is bigger than c, then a is bigger than c. I know that murder is wrong. your own Try these examples against each definition of knowledge : Which ones work best with which way of knowing?

59. What is your definition of Knowledge? Questions and grey areas remain about: the role of judgment; the need for evidence, and the reliability of that evidence; the role of skepticism, and the dangers of too much; the need for belief… People who believe absurdities will commit atrocities Voltaire