1. Models of Epistemological Development in Adults
by Amanda Walzer California State University, Fullerton 2013

2. Introduction
While we’ve been studying child development since Piaget in the 1920s, adults’ stages of development hadn’t been considered until more recently (the 1970s).
Jean Piaget | Cognitive Theory - Simply Psychology
Gail Sheey’s Passages (and later New Passages and Understanding Men’s Passages) began interest in the concept of “adult development.”
Like Piaget transformed child development theory, William Perry’s work at Harvard in the 1970s transformed adult development theory.
Perry noticed that ways of thinking mature through predictable stages as an individual moves from late adolescence into adulthood.
Perry offered a constructive-developmental analysis of “adult” thinking, identifying four stages of development in adolescent-adult thinking…

3. Dualism
This stage is characterized by the belief that Truth is Absolute and knowable.
An authority figure (parent, church, military commander, teacher) is the source of Truth and cannot be questioned.
Later, other perspectives may be acknowledged, but they are “wrong.”
Characterized by black-and-white, us-and-them, good guys vs. bad guys thinking.
Hence the term “Dualism”—there are two ways of looking at things
The thinker might say things like:
I’m right. You’re wrong.
What’s to discuss? The answer’s obvious.

4. Multiplicity
Reflects emerging understanding that the world is uncertain.
Things are now “right,” “wrong” and “not yet known.”
Learning means trying to understand the “not yet known” to determine rightness or wrongness.
Some learners get to the realization that they “may never know every thing for sure”
The thinker might say things like
If I knew the correct way, I could…
No one has ever taught me the right way to…

5. Relativism
Things are not “right” or “wrong” with a growing number of exceptions; instead everything is relative with a few right/wrong exceptions.
Everyone has an opinion & is entitled to that opinion; moreover, all opinions are equally valid
There’s no way to know the truth for sure because we all have different vantage points
The learner might say things like:
It all depends.
Everyone is entitled to his/her opinion
In my opinion…
That’s his opinion.

6. Commitment Within Relativism
All opinions are not equally valid; some opinions are more valid than others (because they are more current, more relevant, come from a source with more expertise on the issue, aren’t biased by an agenda, are well-supported by evidence, etc.).
Involves making a commitment to a position, only after being informed; “Takes in” all the available information, then “weighs in” on the situation.
Reflects maturity of thinking, representative of those who are graduating from college or are in graduate school
Understanding and knowing require interpretation.
An authority can be a valuable resource to help one shape a valid interpretation
A learner might say things like
After reviewing the research, it seems clear that…
The science to-date is inconclusive about the effect of…
Though Tyler May argues…her opinion is not as valid as it once was because…

7. An Alternative to Perry’s Model: Belenky et al
An Alternative to Perry’s Model: Belenky et al. and Women’s Ways of Knowing
In Women’s Ways of Knowing, Belenky at al. (1986) pointed out that Perry’s studies were all done on privileged, white males at Harvard—hardly a representative sampling of people in general
They pointed out that diverse learners (including women, LGBT people, people of non-white ethnic groups, people of different socioeconomic classes, etc.) have ways of knowing that are not well-described by Perry’s stages
Further, we do a disservice to diverse learners if we view their modes of learning as a deficit that must be overcome (rather than a legitimate difference)
Researchers studying women, Clinchy and Zimmerman (1982) and Benack (1982), found that “women’s thoughts appeared to be more tolerant and flexible” than Perry’s model would seem to indicate. (Baxter Magolda, 1992, p. 7)
Belenky et al. studied women’s ways of knowing and observed that the maturation of their thinking was better described by a progressive movement between different epistemological perspectives:

8. Women’s Ways of Knowing According to Belenky et al.(1986)
Silence, Received knowledge
Silent women
Don’t view words as tools for understanding
Subjective knowledge
Listeners, who listen to their own internal voices
Listeners, who focus on receiving knowledge form others
Procedural Knowledge
Connected knowing; women gain access to others’ experiences in a connected fashion
Separate knowing; women are objective an separate from others
Constructed knowledge
Women construct knowledge by judging evidence within a context
Represents an integration of separate and connected approaches

9. Another Alternative to Perry: Baxter Magolda’s Epistemological Reflection
Baxter Magolda relied on student narratives on student narratives as a basis for understanding how ways of knowing (and the patterns within those ways of knowing) develop.
She finds much in common between Perry’s model and Belenky et al.’s models, but notices some other patterns as well (Baxter-Magolda, 1992, 30, 75, 101, 135, 165).
Baxter Magolda noticed “an equality and fluidity in ways of knowing” that had not been described before (Baxter-Magolda, 1992, 13).
The patterns Baxter-Magolda noticed (ie. receiving vs. mastery, interpersonal vs. impersonal, etc.) are gendered ways of thinking but not “dictated by gender” (13).  The focus is on the student and on identifying his/her thinking pattern—not on the student’s gender.
Baxter Magolda identified four developmental stages of knowing…

10. Epistemological Reflection According to Baxter Magolda
Absolute knowing
Corresponds to Perry’s “Dualism” and Belenky et al.’s “Silence, Received knowledge.” Learner obtains knowledge from instructor; peers share materials and explain what they have learned to each other; instructor communicates knowledge and ensures students understand knowledge; evaluation shows instructor what students have learned; knowledge is certain or absolute
Transitional knowing
Corresponds to Perry’s “Multiplicity” and Belenky et al.’s “”Subjective knowledge.” Learner understands knowledge; peers provide active exchanges; instructor uses methods aimed at understanding, employs methods to help apply knowledge; evaluation measures students’ understanding of the material; knowledge is partially certain and partially uncertain
Independent knowing
Corresponds to Perry’s “Relativism” and Belenky et al.’s “Procedural knowledge.” Learner thinks for self, shares views with others and creates own perspective; peers share views and serve as a source of knowledge; instructor promotes independent thinking and exchange of opinions; evaluation rewards independent thinking; knowledge is uncertain—everyone has own beliefs
Contextual knowing
Corresponds to Perry’s Commitment within relativism” and Belenky et al.’s “Constructed knowledge.” Learner exchanges and compares perspectives, thinks through problems, integrates and applies knowledge; peers enhance learning via quality contributions; instructor promotes application of knowledge in context and evaluative discussion; students and teacher work toward goal and measure progress; knowledge is contextual, judge on the basis of evidence

11. Models of Epistemological Development
Intellectual and Ethical Development
(PERRY)
Women’s Ways of Knowing
(BELENKY ET AL.)
Epistemological Reflection
(BAXTER MAGOLDA)
Reflective Judgement
(KING and KITCHENER)
Argumentative Reasoning
(KUHN)
In addition to Perry, Belenky et al., and Baxter Magolda, there are two other models for adult development theory:
King and Kitchener describe “reflective judgement stages” (pre-reflective, quasi-reflective and reflective-thinking);
Kuhn identifies three “epistemological views” (absolutists, multiplists and evaluativists).
Flippo & Caverly (2009, p. 28)

12. Implications of Adult Development Theory for Teaching College
Our goal should be moving students toward “contextual knowing”
We ought to identify and incorporate activities and learning strategies that move students toward mature, contextual thinking.
We should respect that individuals will get there to different degrees, in different ways, and in their own time
We ought to support learners at different developmental stages by differentiating our classroom instructional strategies.

13. References
Baxter Magolda, M.B. (1992). Knowing and Reasoning in College: Gender-Related Patterns in Students’ Intellectual Development. San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Carter-Wells, J. Adult Development Theory, Fall 101 [DOCX document]. Retrieved from
McLeod, S. (2009, updated 2012). “Jean Piaget.” Retrieved from
Pawan, F. and Honeyford, M.A. (2009) Academic Literacy. In Flippo, R.F. and Caverly, D.C. (Eds.) Handbook of College Reading and Study Strategy Research ( ). New York: Routledge.
Sheey, G. Passages. In Gail Sheehy. Retrieved from