2. Detection of Environmental Conditions in Mammals

3. Irritability The ability to respond to stimuli Stimuli (external or internal) are detected by receptors or sense organs Receptors generate nerve impulses after being stimulated Nerve impulses are sent to the brain for interpretation The brain then generates nerve impulses carrying suitable responses to the effectors The effectors (muscles or glands) then produces suitable responses

4. Eye Sense organ for receiving light Protected by the skull

5. Structures around the eye-ball Tear glands: secrete tears which –wash away dust –contain lyzozyme which kills bacteria –moisten the eye surface Eyelids –protect eye from damage Eyelashes –protect the eye from large particles to enter it

6. Internal structure of the eye-ball Wall of eye-ball consists of 3 layers 1.Sclera maintain the shape of the eye-ball protects the inner structures provides anchorage to eye muscles

7. Internal structure of the eye-ball 2.Choroid With many blood vessels and pigment Blood vessels supplies oxygen and nutrients to the eyes, and to remove metabolic wastes from them Pigment absorbs extra light to prevent reflection of light inside the eyeball which may blur the image

8. Internal structure of the eye-ball 3.Retina Contains light sensitive cells (photo- receptors) and nerves Rods for black- and-white vision Cones for colour vision

9. Internal structure of the eye-ball Yellow spot densely packed with cones no rod is present gives the most distinct image and the greatest colour discrimination

10. Internal structure of the eye-ball Blind spot the point where the nerve fibres leave the eye-ball no photo-receptors  cannot detect any image

11. Internal structure of the eye-ball Cornea Continuous with sclera Protected by conjunctiva To allow light to enter To refract light onto the retina

12. Internal structure of the eye-ball Pupil The opening which allows light to enter the eye-ball Iris To control the size of the pupil

13. Change in the pupil size Iris is made of circular muscles and radial muscles –antagonistic pair

14. Increase in the pupil size At dim light : circular muscles relax; radial muscles contract increase in size of pupil

15. Decrease in the pupil size At bright light : circular muscles contract; radial muscles relax decrease in size of pupil

16. Internal structure of the eye-ball Lens Transparent, elastic, biconvex structure To focus light rays on the retina by changing its convexity

17. Internal structure of the eye-ball Suspensory ligaments Hold the lens in position Ciliary body Regulates the curvature of the lens by contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscles

18. Accommodation The ability of the eye to focus objects at varying distances onto the retina

19. Light entering the eye is refracted successively at the cornea, the aqueous humour, the lens and the vitreous humour. The image is formed on the retina and the retina sends signal along the optical nerve to the brain, causing the sensation of sight. The image formed on the retina is inverted but is interpreted as erect.

20. Focusing near object Light from near object

21. Focusing on near objects Ciliary muscles contract  Decrease in circumference Tension of suspensory ligaments is decreased Lens become more convex

22. Focusing far away object Light from far away object

23. Focusing on distant objects Ciliary muscles relax  Increase in circumference Tension of suspensory ligaments is increased Lens become less convex

24. Accommodation

25. Near Point and Far Point The average normal eye can focus objects easily from about 25 cm, i.e., the near point, to infinity, i.e. the far point. This range of distance of clear vision varies from one person to another and decreases with age.

26. Short sight Light from distant object

27. The eyeball is a bit too long. The lens lacks the ability to accommodate for a distant object.

28. Correction of short sight Light from distant object Diverging lens ( Concave lens )

29. Long sight Light from near object

30. The eyeball is a bit too short. The lens lacks the ability to accommodate for a near object.

31. Correction of long sight Light from near object Converging lens ( Convex lens )

33. Eye defects Short-sighted –Image of a distant object formed in front of the retina –Lens too thick –Eye-ball too long –Correction: wear concave lens

34. Eye defects Long-sighted –Image of a near object formed behind the retina –Lens too thin –Eye-ball too short –Correction: wear conves lens

35. Eye defects Colour blindness –Defect of one or more of the three types of cone cells –Unable to distinguish between colours –Inherited

36. Class Practice 1.Which of the following statements about the lens is/are correct ? (1)The image formed on the retina is real. (2)The pupil is smaller in bright light than in dim light. (3)When the object distance changes, the eye focuses an object by chaning the focal length of the eye lens.

37. Internal structure of the eye-ball Anterior chamber Filled with aqueous humour –to refract light onto the retina –to maintain the shape of the eye-ball –to supply nutrients to the conjunctiva, conera and lens

38. Internal structure of the eye-ball Posterior chamber Filled with vitreous humour –to refract light onto the retina –to maintain the shape of the eye-ball

39. Internal structure of the eye-ball Optic nerve To transmit nerve impulses to the optic centre in the cerebral cortex of the brain for interpretation

40. Basic Fact of EAR Ears are used to detect SOUND in environment. Ears help to detect movement & position. Ear is divided into Outer Ear, Middle Ear & Inner Ear.

41. Structure of EAR Outer Ear: EAR PINNA, EAR CANAL & EAR DRUM. Middle Ear: EAR BONES Inner Ear: EUSTACHIAN TUBE & ADENOIDS.

42. Outer Ear It is the part which is visible and is made of folds of skin and cartilage. It leads into the ear canal, which is about one inch long in adults and is closed at the inner end by the eardrum. The eardrum is a thin, fibrous, circular membrane covered with a thin layer of skin. It vibrates in response to changes in the air pressure that constitute sound. The eardrum separates the outer ear from the middle ear.

43. Middle Ear It is a small cavity which conducts sound to the inner ear by means of three tiny, linked, movable bones called "ossicles." These are the smallest bones in the human body and are named for their shape. The hammer (malleus) joins the inside of the eardrum. The incus joint with the hammer and to the stapes. The base of the stapes fills the oval window which leads to the inner ear.

44. Inner Ear The inner ear is a very delicate series of structures deep within the bones of the skull. It consists of a maze of winding passages, called the "labyrinth". The front (see cochlea) is a tube resembling a snail's shell and is concerned with hearing. The rear part is concerned with balance.

45. Detection of SOUND 1.Sound waves (air vibrations) are collected by the OUTER EAR. 2.Sound waves vibrate the EAR DRUM. 3.Vibrations are amplified by the EAR BONES. 4.Vibrations change the pressure of the FLUID of the INNER EAR. 5.Vibrations are transmitted to signals to the brain via nerve impulses.

46. Intensity Cues in Stereo When the volume of two speakers are equal, we will hear the sound as come from the centre.

47. Structure of the ear Three regions: Outer earMiddle earInner ear

48. Process of hearing Sound waves are collected by the ear pinna

49. Process of hearing Sound waves pass along the external auditory canal to the ear drum

50. Process of hearing Sound waves make the ear drum to vibrate Ear drum converts sound waves into mechanical vibrations

51. Process of hearing Ear drum transmits vibration to the ear bones Ear bones transmit and amplify vibrations

52. Process of hearing Ear bones transmit vibration to the oval windows

53. Process of hearing Oval window causes the perilymph in the upper canal of the cochlea to vibrate

54. Process of hearing Perilymph transmits vibrations to the endolymph in the middle canal

55. Process of hearing The sensory hair cells on the bottom membrane of the middle canal are stimulated The sensory hair cells send off nerve impulses

56. Process of hearing The auditory nerve transmits the impulses to the auditory centre of the cerebral cortex The auditory centre interprets the nerve impulses and produce the sensation of hearing

57. Process of hearing The vibrations of perilymph are transmitted to the round window Round window bulges outwards into the middle ear cavity to release pressure

58. Equalizing the pressure on both sides of the eardrum The middle ear is air-filled –The atmospheric pressure may become higher or lower than the air pressure in the middle ear –This causes the ear drum to curve inwards or outwards –The ear drum cannot vibrate properly and causes pain and temporarily deaf

59. Equalizing the pressure on both sides of the eardrum The pressure on both sides of the ear drum can be equalized by the Eustachian tube Eustachian tube is connected to the pharynxIt is opened only during swallowing or yawning

60. Detection of movement by the ear Above the cochlea are three semi-circular canals –They are responsible for detecting head movement At the base of each canal is a swelling called ampulla The semi-circular canals are perpendicular to each other to detect head movement in all planes

61. Detection of movement by the ear Semi-circular canals are filled with endolymphGelatinous mass (cupula) is found inside each ampulla

62. Detection of movement by the ear When the head move, the semi- circular canals will move in the same direction However, the endolymph in the canals will move in opposite direction due to inertia The endolymph displaces the gelatinous mass inside the ampulla The sensory hair cells under the gelatinous mass is stimulated Nerve impulses are generated and transmitted along the auditory nerve

63. Detection of movement by the ear Nerve impulses are generated and transmitted along the auditory nerve to the cerebrum: aware of the direction of head movement the cerebellum: leads to appropriate responses of the muscles to maintain body balance

64. Nose - the olfactory organ For detection of smell By olfactory cells on the upper part of nasal cavity Covered with mucus –to dissolve chemicals in air which stimulate the olfactory cells to produce nerve impulses to the cerebrum

65. Tongue - the taste organ Detected by taste buds on the upper surface of the tongue which are stimulated by chemicals dissolved in saliva Different regions detect different tastes sweet salty sour bitter Flavour of food is given by both the sense of taste and odour of it

66. The skin Contains many receptors for the sensation of touch, cold, hot, pain and pressure The distribution of them are uneven throughout the skin