1. Column and Thin Layer Chromatography
Two separation techniques --

2. Chromatography is a separation technique used to obtain pure chemical compounds from a mixture of compounds on a scale from micrograms up to kilograms.
The prefix chroma derives from the original separations of colored plant pigments by this method.
All forms of chromatography are based on the same underlying principal -- i.e. partition coefficient.

3. Types of Chromatography
Characterized by the nature of the mobile phase (eluant) and stationary phase (adsorbent) –
liquid – solid = column chromatography, HPLC (high performance liquid chromatograhy), TLC (thin layer chromatography)
gas – liquid = GLC (gas-liquid chromatograhy)
liquid-liquid = paper chromatography

4. Chromatography Basics (1)
The components of a mixture will distribute themselves unequally between two immiscible phases.
Mobile phase (eluent) – a liquid or gas which flows continuously over the stationary phase
Stationary phase (adsorbent) – a solid or liquid held in place and for which the components of the mixture have different affinities

5. Chromatography Basics (2)
The mixture is applied to the column to create a narrow band (migratory band) of material in dynamic equilibrium between the mobile phase and the stationary phase.
As the mobile phase moves, the components of the mixture which are the most soluble in the mobile phase move with it – those most attracted to the stationary phase “bind” and are held up. New equilbria are established and the process repeats.

6. Chromatography Basics (3)
With time, the component which is the most soluble in the mobile phase moves farther away from the other = separation.
Collecting fractions of the solution exiting the column allows one to separate the components of the mixture from the mobile phase.

7. Forces of Attraction
The components of the mixture are attracted to the stationary phase by forces such as –
electrostatic forces
dipole-dipole interactions
hydrogen bonding
complex formation
Van der Waals or London forces
“Like attracts like.”

8. Selection of Adsorbent
Components of mixture must have different affinities for the adsorbent.
Common organic adsorbents are:
Alumina (Al2O3) – more polar – highly reactive – three forms are neutral, basic, acidic
Silica gel (silicic acid , SiO2●xH2O) – slightly acidic
Others include – chitin, derivatives of cellulose, ion exchange resins, etc

9. Packing Rules Adsorbent must be dry and have uniform particles size
Start with at least 10 g adsorbent per 1 g of mixture
Packing about 10 x higher than wide
No air pockets or irregularities

10. Elutropic Series
Lower polarity
Petroleum Ether
Hexane
Toluene
Dichloromethane
Chloroform
Diethyl ether
Ethyl acetate
Acetone
1-Propanol
Ethanol
Methanol
Water
Columns are generally eluted with a series of solvents or solvent mixtures so that the polarity of the eluent increases (normal-phase chromatography)
(List to right: Lowest Polarity at top – first eluent )
Higher polarity

11. Reverse Phase Chromatography
Stationary phase is more non-polar; Mobile phase is more polar.
Common in HPLC
Adsorbent glass beads coated with non-polar, hydrocarbon film or non-polar polymeric material
Elute with decreasing polarity solvents
(For more on chromatography go to:

12. Detection of Compounds
Unless the components of the mixture were colored, how to do you know when they are coming off the column?
Detection Methods include not only visual but also
Refractive Index
Ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy
Thin layer chromatography tracking
Evaporation and collection of a residue

13. Overview of Procedural Steps
Clamp upright a dry 50-mL chromatography column with either a stopcock or hose and clamp on the tip. Ensure the stopcock is closed.
Loosely insert a small plug of either cotton or glass wool at the
Add enough sand to give a column 1-cm high
Add 10 mL petroleum ether via a funnel
Slowly sift in 8 g of dry neutral alumina while constantly tapping the walls of the column
Wash any alumnia that sticks to walls down with petroleum ether
Cover the alumnia with a 1-cm layer of sand

14. Procedural Steps cont’d
Put ~0.1 g of fluorene:fluorenone mixture in a test tube.
Add 0.5 mL of pet ether to mixture & then 1 drop of dichloromethane with shaking to get the solid mixture to dissolve.
Then….

15. Procedural Steps cont’d
Add 20 mL clean petroleum ether without disturbing the sand
Open the stopcock and collect the eluent in a graduated cylinder
Monitor the eluent every 5 mL.

16. Monitoring the Eluent
Every 5 mL that elutes, catch a drop or two on a watch glass and determine if a solid residue remains after evaporation.
When no residue appears in the last drop evaporated, run 5 mL more petroleum ether.
Shut the stopcock and switch to dichloromethane.
When the eluant is no longer yellow, stop the column. The separation is complete.

17. Thin Layer Chromatography
Using a small capillary, place a tiny drop of the eluent from each collected sample on a thin layer strip. Do the same for the original mixture.
Develop the strips in a mixture of 1.5 mL dichloromethane to 8.5 mL petroleum ether until the solvent is within a cm or so of the top of the strip.
Dry the strip and visualize the spots – iodine or UV light

18. Thin Layer Chromatography
Don’t touch the separating surface with your fingers.
Don’t use ink to mark the origin.
Mark the leading edge of each spot with pencil and measure the distance traveled.
Measure the distance the solvent traveled.
Calculate the rate of flow (Rf )
Solvent front
Origin
Rf = distance the spot traveled (cm)
max distance the eluent traveled (cm)
Know how to calculate the Rf of a spot!

19. Procedural Steps Evaporate the solvent from both eluted substances.
Remember to make sure that you know the mass of the container before evaporation! (Weigh-by-difference technique)
Put the dry solids properly labeled bottles and submit to your instructor .
Results:
%-recoveries of each compound
Rf values of each compound

20. What do you expect? Adsorbent is alumnia – neutral, polar
Which compound has the higher affinity for the adsorbent and why?

21. Preparing your NB… Chemicals in Table: Figures:
Fluorene, 9-fluorenone, petroleum ether, dichloromethane, alumina, water
Figures:
Fig. 6.3 (pg. 181)
Fig. 6.7 (pg. 189) combined with Fig (pg. 193)
Follow the procedure given in the Handout! You may print and securely tape the procedure in your NB.
Make sure that you’ve read over the procedure and have a good idea of what you’ll be doing!
No chemical reactions.