1. Markus Geissler, PhD Professor, Computer Information Science Cosumnes River College Sacramento, California, USA Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

2. Overview  Software agents defined  Cultural considerations for agent design  Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions  Hall’s High- and Low-Context Cultures  Agent environments  Agent roles Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

3. Cultural Factors in Agent Design  Due to their cultural differences agent designers are likely to take different approaches to creating agent attributes, actions, and interactions within the agent’s environment. Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

4. Definitions of an Agent  Common usage An agent is a “person who acts on behalf of another, for example, managing business, financial or contractual matters, or provides a service.”  Computer science-related An agent is “an entity that performs a specific activity in an environment of which it is aware and that can respond to changes.” ○ (Sterling & Taveter, 2009) Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

5. Cultural Differences Can Lead to Security Problems  It is important to understand the mindset of your collaborators and/or counterparts.  Communication can help alleviate cultural differences and improve information systems design. Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

6. Quick Review: Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions  Power Distance (PDI)  Individualism/Collectivism (IDV)  Masculinity/Femininity (MAS)  Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI)  Long-Term Orientation (LTO) Source: http://www.geert-hofstede.comhttp://www.geert-hofstede.com  Apply to software agent design Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

7. Power Distance (PDI)  What is the agent’s role? What are the agent’s functions?  High-PDI: Servant Dependent entity Does only what it is told to do by the master  Low-PDI: Service provider Independent entity Shared vs. assigned power Is the agent a threat to me? Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

8. Individualism/Collectivism (IDV)  High-IDV I can do it myself! Loose group = less collective expertise? Are high-IDV cultures more or less likely to use agents?  Low-IDV How does the agent interact with my group(s)? Can my in-group(s) do the job of the agent? Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

9. Masculinity/Femininity (MAS)  High-MAS The agent will do precisely as I tell it to, or else.  Low-MAS Agents should be tools of support and caring. Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

10. Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI)  High-UAI Will the agent to the right thing all the time? What limitations or parameters need to be set?  Low-UAI Can agents with fewer rules be more flexible? ○ And therefore more effective? Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

11. Long-Term Orientation (LTO)  High-LTO Will this agent make me do my job better?  Low-LTO (short-term orientation) Could this agent get me into trouble? Could using this agent offend someone and make me look bad? ○ Colleagues vs. family Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

12. High-Context vs. Low-Context  Members of high-context cultures share substantial common knowledge. Effective communication is assumed even if less explicit.  In low-context cultures “more knowledge is codified, public, external, and accessible.” ○ http://www.culture-at-work.com (Beer, 2003; Hall, 1976) http://www.culture-at-work.com Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

13. Agent Environment  How does an agent interact with other concrete agents and objects in its environment? Does it require more or less resources of its environment or other agents?  To what degree does the environment facilitate coordination and communication between agents? Example: CSMA/CD vs. CSMA/CA Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

14. Cultural Perceptions of Environment  Real vs. virtual In some real environments 99.999% uptime is not realistic. Virtual environments may be assumed to be more reliable.  On time vs. in time Some cultures expect timeliness by the clock while others consider it timely if the needs of others are appropriately met. Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

15. Which Cultural Roles do Agents Play?  Members of high-PDI cultures may design agents that exert what some may consider excessive control over other agents or their environment  Service orientation vs. control relationships  Example: Some waiters and waitresses in the U.S. can be overbearing Some try to upsell to expensive beverages The goal is to have lunch and a conversation, not to be interrupted all the time. Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

16. Agent Types  Interaction pathways between agent types Peer vs. control relationships  Members of high-PDI cultures may subordinate agent types differently than members of low-PDI cultures. Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

17. Valuation of Resources  In some cultures materials and goods have varying degrees of importance. Some try to conserve resources no matter what. ○ High-LTO Others are more liberal with the use of resources, arguing that the resources exist to be used. Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

18. Problem Solving  Cultures approach and address problems differently. Members of high-IDV cultures try to solve problems themselves. Members of low-LTO cultures try to cover them up.  Sometimes a problem in one culture is not considered a problem in another. The network is not running as efficiently as possible. But it is running. What’s the problem? Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

19. Sensors and Actuators  Different perceptions by various cultures How frequently, how precisely, and to what extremes should an agent analyze its environment?  Concept of “stateless” can be difficult to grasp for low-LTO cultures Something that is stateless has no tradition. Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

20. Agent Design Considerations  Attributes More or less attributes? More or less clearly defined? ○ At what cost?  Actions → Events to other agents More or less complex? ○ At what cost?  Behavioral constructs (environment) More or less complex? Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

21. Agent Attribute Design - 1  Designers from low-context cultures will probably include more specific and detailed, and therefore more, attributes. Example: Sensors that can distinguish between 100 rather than 10 different states  Benefits More precise agent functionality  Disadvantages More costly initial design and ongoing operation Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

22. Agent Attribute Design - 2  Designers from high-IDV cultures are more likely to create more functional and more independent agents.  Benefits Greater agent autonomy, along with lower communication requirements  Disadvantages Reduced agent portability between various environments Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

23. Agent Action Design – 1  Designers from high-UAI cultures are more likely to design agents that are more failure-resistant.  Benefits Lower incidence of malfunction  Disadvantages Agent design takes longer and is more involved. Agent communications with the environment are more intensive. Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

24. Agent Action Design – 2  Designers from low-context cultures are more likely to design agents that communicate large amounts of information.  Benefits More detailed recognition and communication of an agent’s attributes, environment, and changes therein  Disadvantages Greater demands on the environment Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

25. Behavioral Construct Design  Designers from low-MAS cultures are more likely to design agents that communicate more comprehensively with other objects in their environment.  Benefits More reliable communication with more feedback  Disadvantages Greater connectivity requirements Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

26. Agent Design Considerations for Certain Countries  CountryPDIIDVMASUAILTO Japan5446959280 Portugal632731104N/A South Korea6018398575 Slovakia *104521105138 United States4091624629 * Estimated values Source: http://www.geert-hofstede.comhttp://www.geert-hofstede.com Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

27. Bibliography  Beer, J. (2003). Communicating Across Cultures: High and Low Context. Retrieved February 22, 2010 from http://www.culture-at- work.com/highlow.html. http://www.culture-at- work.com/highlow.html  Hall, E.T. (1976). Beyond Culture, New York: Doubleday. Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

28. Bibliography (continued)  Hofstede, G. (2009). Geert Hofstede™ Cultural Dimensions. Retrieved February 22, 2010 from http://www.geert-hofstede.com/.http://www.geert-hofstede.com/  Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.  Hofstede, G. (1997). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the mind. New York: McGraw Hill. Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

29. Bibliography (continued)  Sterling, L. & Taveter, K. (2009). The Art of Agent-Oriented Modeling. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.  Whitman, M.E. & Mattord, H.J. (2009). Principles of Information Security (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Course Technology. Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD

30. Did you pay attention?  What are the differences between high- and low-context cultures?  What are three major agent design considerations?  At_______, Ac_______, B_____ C____ Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD