1. Exploring Lifespan Development
Chapter 6
Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
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2. Psychosocial Stages During Infancy and Toddlerhood
Erikson’s Stage
Needed from Caregivers
First Year
basic trust versus mistrust
responsiveness
Second Year
autonomy versus shame/doubt
suitable guidance; reasonable choices
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3. First Appearance of Basic Emotions
Happiness
smile: from birth
social smile: 6–10 weeks
laugh: 3–4 months
Anger
general distress: from birth
anger: 4–6 months
Fear
first fears: 2nd half of first year
stranger anxiety: 8–12 months
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4. Understanding Emotions of Others
Emotional contagion/Operant conditioning
early infancy
Recognize others’ facial expressions
4–5 months
Social referencing
around 8–10 months
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Social Referencing
Relying on others’ emotional reactions to appraise situation
Caregivers can use to teach children how to react to everyday events
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6. Self-Conscious Emotions
Shame
Embarrassment
Guilt
Envy
Pride
Emerge middle of second year
Children become aware of self as separate and unique
Require adult instruction about when to feel emotions
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7. Emotional Self-Regulation
Adjusting own state of emotional intensity
Requires effortful control
Grows over first year, with brain development
Caregivers contribute to child’s self-regulation style.
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Temperament
Reactivity:
speed and intensity of
emotional arousal
attention
motor activity
Self-regulation:
strategies modifying reactivity
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9. Structure of Temperament
Easy – 40%
Difficult – 10%
Slow-to-warm-up – 15%
Unclassified – 35%
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10. Temperament
Person’s characteristic, biologically based way of approaching and reacting to people and situations. Consistent and enduring patterns that are fairly stable over time.
Temperament refers to a style of behavior: how a person does whatever they do

11. Temperament Temperament affects the infant’s experience in two ways:
infants with different temperaments elicit different responses from others.
infants with different temperaments have different reactions to the same environment or events.

12. Thomas and Chess identified three types of temperament:
Easy babies: (40% of sample) were playful, regular in body functions, and adaptable. They approached new situations with interest and were moderate in their responses. They were the least likely to have problems later.
they had a positive mood
high rhythmicity
low or moderate intensity reactions
high adaptability

13. an approach orientation to new situations and stimuli.
As infants and young children, slept and ate regularly, were generally happy, and readily adjusted to new people and events
Thru later childhood and early adolescence, adjusted easily to changing school requirements and adapted and participated in games and other activities
Easy because they presented with few problems for parents, teachers, or peers.
They would be expected to have adaptive, normative interactions

14. Cries often and loudly, laughs loudly. Respond poorly to change.
Difficult babies (10% of sample) were negative, irregular, and unadaptable.
They withdrew from new situations and had intense reactions. Intense and frequent negative moods.
Cries often and loudly, laughs loudly. Respond poorly to change.
More likely to have difficulty or problems with their parents, school, and peers later in their development. 70% of the difficult children in the sample received psychiatric services while only 18% of the easy children did. They presented with 5 attributes:

15. They presented with 5 attributes:
Low rhythmicity
High intensity reactions
A withdrawal orientation
Slow adaptation
Negative mood

16. All make for difficult social interactions.
As infants and young children, they ate and slept irregularly, took a long time to adjust to new situations, and were characterized by a great deal of crying.
Suspicious of strangers, reacts to frustrations with tantrums.
This pattern persisted into late childhood and early adolescence, and required parents, teachers, and peers to show both tolerance and patience in order to interact at all favorably with them.

17. Slow-to-Warm-Up (15% of sample) were low in activity and mild in their responses. They tended to withdraw from new situations and needed time to adapt to change. Negative initial response to new stimuli. Sleeps and eats more regular than difficult child, less regular than easy child.

18. They present with:
A low activity level;
A withdrawal orientation
Slow adaptability
A somewhat negative mood
Relatively low-reaction intensities
Interaction problems for parents, teachers, requiring efforts to get the child involved in new activities and situations.
This child’s mood and adaptability characteristics created a barrier for positive interactions with parents and teachers.

19. The remaining 35% unclassifiable.
They found that infants vary their responses to people and events, and therefore a “good” home or “bad” home may not always account for temperament problems.
The key to healthy development is goodness of fit between the child’s temperament and the demands made on the child in their home environment. A child’s environment should be in harmony with their temperament.

20. If the two influences are harmonized, one can expect healthy development of the child; if they are dissonant, behavioral problems are sure to ensure.
Environment must fit temperament.
A difficult child should not have new situations forced on them too quickly.
Easy child can be expected to adapt to sudden changes more readily.
Some biological determinants as well, although may or may not continue into adulthood.

21. Temperaments were fairly stable over time; Thomas et al demonstrated that a child’s ratings for each of the various temperamental attributes were stable over from infancy to adolescence
A mother with a difficult baby may be less responsive to their infants and less sensitive to changes in their babies emotional states.

22. Babies with difficult temperaments begin at an early age to cause problems between themselves and their parents: this can lead to a heavy-handed parental discipline and child rebellion may continue long after biologically determined temperamental predisposition has ceased to directly influence the child’s disposition.
Restructuring the environment to better suit the older child’s temperament may inadvertently reward the child for inappropriate behavior.
Differences in temperament and change exist. Some malleability possible.

23. Parents who place great importance upon the speed of their child’s physical and motor development may cause problems.
Mother’s role
Feeding and physical care
Comforting by close body contact
Emphasize verbal play
Father’s role
Highly physical style of play
More time playing than care giving

24. How gender differences are shaped
Through expectations
Preferences of toys and play activities
By second year, fathers talk more and spend more time with sons than daughters. Mothers do the same but for the daughter

25. Biological Basis for Temperament
Inhibited, Shy
react negatively, withdraw from new stimuli
high heart rates, stress hormones and stress symptoms
higher right hemisphere frontal cortex activity
Unhibited, Socialable
react positively, approach new stimuli
low heart rates, stress hormones and stress symptoms
higher left hemisphere frontal cortex activity
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26. Stability of Temperament
Develops with age
low to moderate stability
better indicator after age 3
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27. Genetic and Environmental Influences on Temperament
Genetic influences
responsible for about half of individual differences
ethnic and sex differences
Environmental influences
nutrition
caregiving
cultural variations
gender stereotyping
role of siblings
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Goodness-of-Fit
Combines genetics and environment
Child-rearing to match temperament
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29. Ethological Theory of Attachment
Preattachment
Attachment-in-the-making
Clear-cut attachment
separation anxiety
Formation of a reciprocal relationship
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30. Three different patterns of response to mother’s presence or absence (Ainsworth).
Securely Attached Infants: (about 60% of sample) use mothers as a base for exploration. Stay close to mother and after a few months begin to explore room, toys, etc. Move back towards mother when stranger enters room. These infants had consistently sensitive, responsive mothers. Mothers were alert to infants signals, moods, and preferences; let baby stop to play during a meal if they want to; accepted interruptions and frustrations as part of being a mother. Cry/protest when mother leaves and greet happily upon her return. Cooperative and relatively free of anger.

31. Three different patterns of response to mother’s presence or absence (Ainsworth).
Ambivalently Attached Infants: (about 20% of sample) are reluctant to explore the room or play with toys. Some cling to mother, hiding from a stranger. Becomes anxious even before mother leaves. Intensely distressed when mothers leave, difficult to soothe when they return. Some push away angrily. May be afraid mother will never return and angry when they do.

32. Three different patterns of response to mother’s presence or absence (Ainsworth).
Avoidant Infants: (about 10% of sample) somewhat slow to explore. Rarely cry when mother leaves. They avoid their mothers when they return, ignoring their greetings. Some are friendlier to strangers than to mother. Seem almost afraid of mother. Dislike being held and being put down.

33. Main & Solomen (1986) identified a fourth attachment pattern: disorganized-disorientated attachment. Subtle and difficult to observe. Lacks organized strategy to deal with stranger anxiety.
Contradictory, repetitive, or misdirected behaviors (seeking closeness to stranger versus mother). Greet mother happily upon return but then turns away or approaches without looking at her. Appears confused and afraid. This is the least secure attachment. Mothers tend to be insensitive, intrusive, or abusive, or suffered unresolved loss. 10% of low risk and higher percent of high-risk populations. Factor for behavioral problems, especially aggression.

34. The mother’s of the ambivalent and avoidant infants tended to be rejecting, interfering, or inconsistent in their treatment. The concept of “sensitive responsiveness” is an important one. Mothering is not something a woman does to the baby, but that it is a reciprocal process, an active dialogue between mother and infant.
Ainsworth argues that attachment promotes autonomy. Disputes that infants tied to mother’s apron strings will grow into an immature adult.

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Types of Attachment
Secure – 65%
Avoidant – 20%
Resistant – 10%
Disorganized/disoriented – 5%
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36. Factors That Affect Attachment Security
Opportunity for attachment
Quality of caregiving
sensitive caregiving
interactional synchrony
Infant characteristics
Family circumstances
parents’ internal working models
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37. Fathers and Attachment
Fathers as playmates, mothers as caregivers in many cultures
Important factors in attachment
sensitivity
warmth
family attitudes, relationships
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38. Siblings and Attachment
Majority of children have siblings
adjustment for preschoolers
rich emotional relationship
Parents must promote positive relationships.
Differences in temperament emerge
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39. Attachment and Later Development
Secure attachment related to positive outcomes in:
preschool
middle childhood
Continuity of caregiving may link infant attachment and later development.
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Self-Development
Self-awareness
from birth
aided by intermodal perception
Self- recognition
emerges in second year
helped by acting on environment and noticing effects
Empathy
aided by self-awareness, self-conscious emotions
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Effortful Control
Effortful control
inhibiting impulses
managing negative emotions
behaving acceptably
Children need:
awareness of self as separate and autonomous
confidence in directing own actions
memory for instructions
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Compliance
Understanding and obeying caregivers’ wishes and standards
Emerges between 12–18 months
Toddlers assert autonomy by sometimes not complying.
Warm, sensitive caregiving increases compliance.
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43. Helping Toddlers Develop Compliance and Self-Control
Respond with sensitivity and support.
Give advance notice of change in activities.
Offer many prompts and reminders.
Reinforce self-controlled behavior.
Encourage sustained attention.
Support language development.
Increase rules gradually.
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44. Maltreatment & Abuse
Physical abuse: any contact that could or does result in physical harm; injury though punching, beating, kicking, burning, harsh punishment.
Neglect: failure to provide a child’s basic needs, including housing, medical treatment, nourishment, safe environment, protection, supervision.
Sexual abuse: any sexual activity or contact involving a minor that is sexual in nature; contact between an older person and a minor; nonconsensual contact.

45. Emotional maltreatment: acts of abuse or neglect that cause behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or mental disorders. Includes rejections, terrorism, isolation, exploitation, degradation, ridicule, failure to provide emotional support.
Approximately 60% of children are maltreated; 20% physically abused; 1/3rd sexually abused.
Abusive parents tend to be exhibit: depression, anger problems, poor problem solving skills, have histories of abuse or neglect, substance abuse problems, emotionally distant from their children, isolated, poor relationship history. However, abuse and neglect are always a choice, not out of the parent’s control!

46. Impact of abuse
Experience moderate to severe mental health problems and disorders
Become abusers
Continue to be victims
Physical, cognitive, emotional, social impairment
Brain injury, which results in all of the above
Developmental impairment and delays
Low self esteem, depression, anxiety, antisocial personalities