1. Today’s Lectures: Important Physical Quantities, The Laws of Gravity Speed, velocity, acceleration, force Mass, momentum and inertia Newton’s three laws of motion The Force of Gravity

2. Assigned Reading Chapter 5.1, up to page 92, not including orbital velocity.

3. Before Newton Kepler understood the phenomenology of planetary motions, I.e. the three laws, but never understood *why* planets move the way they do –He thought of magnetic force from the Sun –He even thought (and dismissed) that Angels pull planets along their orbits Galileo understood motion and its causes, like inertia, force and acceleration very well… …but fell short of either understand or explain the causal relationship between force and motion, i.e. acceleration. He also did not propose a universal law for the force of gravity, i.e. he did not recognize gravitation as a universal interaction. For that, humanity had to wait for Newton

4. Describing Motion Motion occurs when the position of an object relative to some reference frame changes with time If position does not change, the object is at rest To describe motions we need a reference frame and we need to monitor position and time The rate at which an objects covers a given amount of space in a given amount of time is called speed – v = s/t

5. Vectors, or things with a sense of direction There are physical quantities in nature for which only one number, their intensity, tells the whole story: e.g. temperature, mass, luminosity, color. –We call them SCALARS Other quantities need both an intensity and a direction to be fully described: e.g. speed, force, acceleration. These quantities with a “direction” are called VECTORS

6. Velocity and Acceleration Acceleration (a) is the change of a body’s velocity (v) with time (t): 1.Acceleration in the conventional sense (i.e. increasing speed) a =  v/  t Different cases of acceleration: Velocity and acceleration are directed quantities (vectors)! 3.Change of the direction of motion (e.g., in circular motion) 2.Deceleration (i.e. decreasing speed) a v

7. Vocabulary Words Speed is the distance traveled in each second – it’s measured in meters per second (m/s). Velocity is the speed in a particular direction – it’s measured in meters per second (m/s). Acceleration is the change in velocity in each second – it’s measured in meters per second per second (or m/s 2 )

8. More On Acceleration An acceleration is a change in velocity. Acceleration occurs when either the magnitude or direction of the velocity (or both) are altered. Uniform Circular Motion is Accelerated Motion If an object does not accelerate, that means that the total sum of forces acting on it is zero. It does not mean that there are no forces on it. Just the they cancel out

9. Which of the following does NOT describe an acceleration: a car traveling with constant speed around a bend a car decreasing speed on a straight road a car traveling with constant speed on a straight road a planet traveling around a Sun

10. Momentum But Velocity is not the whole story, two objects of different mass, e.g. a train and bike, might move with the same velcity, but they carry different “quantity of motion”. Momentum is a quantitative way to describe an object’s “quantity of motion”. It also describes the tendency to continue to move in the same way it was moving previously (“… keep your momentum…”). An object’s momentum is simply its mass times its velocity. P = m·v Two objects of different mass subject to the same acceleration acquire the same speed, but different momentum. Don’t forget that velocity is a vector, so momentum is a vector: the direction of motion is very important!

11. Galileo’s Law of Inertia momentum P = m·v An object maintains its “quantity of motion” (momentum), unless a force is acted upon it Only a force can change the “quantity of motion” (momentum) of an object, either by changing its speed, or by changing its direction of motion, or both

12. Galileo and the Concept of Inertia Aristotle held that objects at rest remained at rest unless a force acted on them, but that objects in motion did not remain in motion unless a force acted constantly on them: F = v WRONG. Galileo concluded that an object in a state of motion possesses an ``inertia'' that causes it to remain in that state of motion unless an external force acts on it RIGHT.

13. Vectors: when the force is not parallel to velocity (momentum) Earth and moon attract each other through gravitation, i.e. there is a force between them. Earth Moon v v’v’ vv F Earth’s gravitational force constantly accelerates the moon towards Earth. This acceleration is along the direction of the force, i.e. along the radius The velocity is perpendicular to the force This force is constantly changing the moon’s velocity. But it only changes the direction of the velocity vector, not its intensity (speed). So, when the force is perpendicular to the velocity, velocity varies in direction not in strength

14. Sir Isaac Newton and the Unification of Physics & Astronomy Newton was by many standards the most important figure in the development of modern science. He demonstrated that the laws that govern the heavens are the same laws that govern the motion on the surface of the Earth: the universality of gravity, and hence of physical laws. Newton's Three Laws of Motion. Theory of Universal Gravitation (1642-1727)

15. Newton’s First Law of Motion (really, Galielo’s Inertia Law) In the absence of a net force, an object moves with constant velocity, or it conserves its momentum. (paraphrased) If nothing acts on an object, the object will keep moving in a straight line and at a constant speed. The same is true for zero velocity.

16. Newton’s Laws of Motion (1) 1.A body continues at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by some net force. An astronaut floating in space will continue to float forever in a straight line unless some external force is accelerating him/her.

17. Newton’s Laws of Motion (2) A body subject to a force, changes its momentum, i.e. accelerates, and the acceleration a of a body is: 1.inversely proportional to its mass m, 2.directly proportional to the net force F, 3.and in the same direction as the net force. a = F/m  F = m a

18. Newton’s Laws of Motion (3) 3.To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The same force that is accelerating the boy forward, is accelerating the skateboard backward.

19. Newton’s First Law can also be stated as: In the absence of a net force, the acceleration of an object must be zero If an object is being accelerated, there must be a net force exerting on it

20. Newton’s Second Law Of Motion Acceleration is caused by force but also related to the mass of the object Force = Mass x Acceleration F = m·a Or a = F/m

21. Gravity is such that acceleration is constant in any given planet, not the force. So, should a heavy object fall faster than a light one, as Aristotle believed? Bigger force Smaller force Why di they fall with the same speed? The it is not true that F = v…

22. The Falling Body Experiment on the Moon The crew of the Falcon L.E.M., of the Apollo 15 mission, repeating Galileo’s experiment on the Moon No air on the Moon, so drag by air not a factor in the experiment

23. Survey Question Two identical spacecraft are to be accelerated by rockets. The first rocket fires with a force 4 times as great as that of the second rocket. The acceleration of the first rocket is _____ times as great as the acceleration of the second rocket. 1) 1/4 2) 1/2 3) the same 4) 2 times 5) 4 times

24. Newton’s Third Law Of Motion For every ACTION (I.e. application of a force) there is an equal and opposite re- ACTION F 1 = -F 2

25. Newton’s Third Law For any force, there always is an equal and opposite reaction force. Table pushes back on box Box pushes down on table due to gravity.

26. Example: The Jet Engine What makes a jet-propelled airplane move forward?

27. The Third Law demonstrated: without external force, momentum is conserved If one isolated system (i.e. skate-board + human) is at rest (I.e. v=0) is suddenly separated into two parts (i.e. the human jumps off), one moves in one direction and the other must move in the opposite direction! Before separation: P 1 + P 2 = 0 After separation: P 1 = m 1 ·v 1 P 2 = m 2 ·v 2 CONSERVATION: P 1 + P 2 = m 1 ·v 1 + m 2 ·v 2 = 0 THUS: m 1 ·v 1 = -m 2 ·v 2 THUS: To the force that created the first motion… there is an opposite-acting force that creates the second motion

28. Gravity What force is responsible for motions in the universe? What force makes objects fall? What keeps us on the rotating Earth? Why don’t planets move in straight lines, but orbit around the Sun instead?

29. Gravity We can summarize the universal law of gravitation with the following statements: –Every mass attracts every other mass through the force of gravity. –If mass #1 exerts force on mass #2, and mass#2 exxerts force on mass#1, the force must depend o both masses, namely: –The force of attraction is directly proportional to the product of the two masses. –The force of attraction is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the masses.

30. How did Newton figure out Gravity: if the apple was initially at rest and then started to fall, there must be a force acting on the apple. What force? More importantly, if the force of gravity reaches to the tree, might it not reach even further? In particular, might it not reach all the way to the orbit of the Moon? Newton calculated what the Earth’s gravity would be at the position of the Moon. And found that it is what would be required to keep the Moon in its orbit

31. The Universal Law of Gravity Any two bodies are attracting each other through gravitation, with a force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their distance: F = - G Mm r2r2 (G is the Universal constant of gravity.)

32. To calculate Earths’ gravity on the Moon, Newton assumed that Gravity obeys the inverse square law How did Newton calculate Earth’s gravity at the position of the Moon? F ~ 1/D 2

33. The Law of Gravity d M1M1 M2M2 G = 6.67x10 -11 m 3 /kg/s 2 Near Earth’s surface

34. Mass and Weight Mass is a measure of how much material is in an object. Weight is the force exterted by gravity on a massive body (body with mass), e.g. placed on the surface of Earth Weight is a measure of the gravitational force exerted on that material. Thus, mass is constant for an object, but weight depends on the location of the object. Your mass is the same on the moon, but your weight on the surface of the moon is smaller

35. Question: How do objects accelerate due to the force of gravity? Remember these two very, very important concepts: 1)Your mass decides the total force of gravity acting on you Both you and a truck have the same distance to the center of earth. Yet, the force of gravity on the truck is bigger 2)The gravity of Earth decides your acceleration. In other words, when object fall under gravity, they all have the same acceleration, regardless of their mass (remember the two bodies falling from Pisa’s leaning tower?) The gravitational force on an object near the surface of Earth is: F grav = m·g (g = 9.8m/s 2 )

36. Survey Question Two equal masses, m, separated by a distance, d, exert a force, F, on each other due to their gravitational attraction. How large is the gravitational force between an object of mass m and an object of mass 2m separated by the same distance d? ¼ F ½ F F 2F 4F

37. Survey Question Two equal masses, m, separated by a distance, d, exert a force, F, on each other due to their gravitational attraction. How large would their gravitational attraction be if the distance between them was doubled? 1) ¼ F 2) ½ F 3) F 4) 2F 5) 4F

38. Survey Question If aliens magically turned our Sun into a black hole of the same mass but 10 times smaller in diameter, what would change about the Earth’s orbit? 1) it would be 10 times smaller in radius 2) it would spiral into the black hole 3) nothing would change 4) it would spiral away from the black hole 5) it would be 10 times larger in radius

39. … so why don’t planets just fall into the sun? M1M1 M2M2

40. … because they miss (that is, they have enough tangential velocity to always miss) M1M1 M2M2 v This is the concept of an orbit. FgFg FgFg

41. Why doesn't the earth fall to the sun? It has a velocity and it has inertia! Force of gravity causes change in the direction of velocity --- acceleration. The earth is falling towards the sun all the time!

42. V=8km/s

43. Why don't they fall? They are circuling Earth at a speed of 8 km/s!

44. Quiz  Astronauts inside the space shuttle float around because ____ they are falling in the same way as the space shuttle.  If you are in a free-falling elevator, you are massless. (true or false) false