1. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Human Anatomy & Physiology SEVENTH EDITION Elaine N. Marieb Katja Hoehn PowerPoint ® Lecture Slides prepared by Vince Austin, Bluegrass Technical and Community College C H A P T E R 17 Blood

2. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Overview of Blood Circulation  Blood leaves the heart via arteries that branch repeatedly until they become capillaries  Oxygen (O 2 ) and nutrients diffuse across capillary walls and enter tissues  Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and wastes move from tissues into the blood

3. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Overview of Blood Circulation  Oxygen-deficient blood leaves the capillaries and flows in veins to the heart  This blood flows to the lungs where it releases CO 2 and picks up O 2  The oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart

4. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Composition of Blood  body’s only fluid tissue  composed of liquid plasma and formed elements  Formed elements include:  Erythrocytes, or red blood cells (RBCs)  Leukocytes, or white blood cells (WBCs)  Platelets  Hematocrit – the percentage of RBCs out of the total blood volume

5. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Components of Whole Blood Figure 17.1

6. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Physical Characteristics and Volume  sticky, opaque fluid with a metallic taste  Color varies from scarlet to dark red  pH of blood is 7.35–7.45  Temperature is 38  C  accounts for approximately 8% of body weight  Average volume: 5–6 L for males, and 4–5 L for females

7. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Functions of Blood Functions  Distribution  Regulation  Protection

8. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Distribution  O 2 from the lungs and nutrients from the digestive tract  Metabolic wastes from cells to the lungs and kidneys for elimination  Hormones from endocrine glands to target organs

9. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regulation  Blood maintains:  Body temperature by absorbing and distributing heat  Normal pH in body tissues using buffer systems  Adequate fluid volume in the circulatory system

10. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protection 1. Blood prevents blood loss by clot formation 2. Blood prevents infection by:  Antibodies  Activating complement proteins  Activating WBCs to defend the body against foreign invaders

11. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Blood Plasma 1. 90% water 2. 10% solutes  Plasma proteins – (albumins, globulins, gamma, fibrinogen)  Nitrogenous substances – (urea, uric acid, creatinine, ammonium salts)  Nutrients – (glucose, amino acids, fat products, vitamins)  Electrolytes, gases, hormones

12. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Formed Elements Erythrocytes – RBC  Biconcave, anucleate, non-organelle  Hemoglobin (Hb-97%) – protein of RBC for gas transport  Energy generated anaerobically  Major factor of blood viscosity  Women have lower count than men

13. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Erythrocytes (RBCs) Figure 17.3

14. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Components of Whole Blood Figure 17.2

15. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Erythrocyte Function Hemo|globin - 14-20 g/100ml of blood 250 million Hb molecules per RBC Oxyhemoglobin - bright red Deoxyhemoglobin – dark red

16. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structure of Hemoglobin Figure 17.4

17. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Production of Erythrocytes  Hematopoiesis – blood cell formation  Occurs in the red bone marrow of the:  Axial skeleton and girdles  Epiphyses of the humerus and femur

18. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Production of Erythrocytes: Erythropoiesis Figure 17.5

19. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regulation and Requirements for Erythropoiesis  Too few RBCs leads to tissue hypoxia  Too many RBCs causes undesirable blood viscosity  Hormonally controlled and depends on adequate supplies of iron, amino acids, and B vitamins

20. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Homeostasis: Normal blood oxygen levels Increases O 2 -carrying ability of blood Erythropoietin stimulates red bone marrow Reduces O 2 levels in blood Kidney (and liver to a smaller extent) releases erythropoietin Enhanced erythropoiesis increases RBC count Stimulus: Hypoxia due to decreased RBC count, decreased amount of hemoglobin, or decreased availability of O 2 Start Erythropoietin Mechanism Figure 17.6

21. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fate and Destruction of Erythrocytes  The life span of an erythrocyte is 100–120 days

22. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fate and Destruction of Erythrocytes  Heme is degraded to a yellow pigment called bilirubin  The liver secretes bilirubin into the intestines as bile  The intestines metabolize it into urobilinogen  This degraded pigment leaves the body in feces, in a brown pigment called stercobilin  Heme  bilirubin  bile  urobilinogen  stercobilin

23. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Hemoglobin Amino acids Globin Raw materials are made available in blood for erythrocyte synthesis. Iron is bound to transferrin and released to blood from liver as needed for erythropoiesis Food nutrients, including amino acids, Fe, B 12, and folic acid are absorbed from intestine and enter blood Heme Circulation Iron stored as ferritin, hemosiderin Bilirubin Bilirubin is picked up from blood by liver, secreted into intestine in bile, metabolized to stercobilin by bacteria and excreted in feces Erythropoietin levels rise in blood. Erythropoietin and necessary raw materials in blood promote erythropoiesis in red bone marrow. New erythrocytes enter bloodstream; function about 120 days. Low O 2 levels in blood stimulate kidneys to produce erythropoietin. Aged and damaged red blood cells are engulfed by macrophages of liver, spleen, and bone marrow; the hemoglobin is broken down. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Figure 17.7

24. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Anemia – blood has abnormally low oxygen- carrying capacity  Hemorrhagic anemia – result of acute or chronic loss of blood  Hemolytic anemia – prematurely ruptured RBCs  Aplastic anemia – destruction or inhibition of red bone marrow Erythrocyte Disorders

25. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Iron-deficiency  Pernicious anemia Anemia: Decreased Hemoglobin Content

26. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Anemia: Abnormal Hemoglobin  Thalassemias  Sickle-cell  Polycythemia  Blood doping

27. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Leukocytes (WBCs)  Complete cells  Crucial to defense against disease  Make up 1% of the total blood volume  Can leave capillaries via diapedesis  Move through tissue spaces like an amoeba  Leukocytosis – WBC count over 11,000 / mm 3  Normal response to bacterial or viral invasion

28. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Percentages of Leukocytes Figure 17.9

29. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Granulocytes (BEN)  Have nuclei which appear lobed  Have granules in the cytoplasm  Are phagocytes  Neutrophils – bacteria and fungi  Eosinophils – parasitic worms (tape,flukes,pin,hook)  Basophils – release histamines to attrack other WBC

30. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings  No visible granules in the cytoplasm  Nucleus is sphere or kidney shaped  Lymphocytes – T cell and B cells T cells – act against viral cells and tumor cells B cells – produce plasma cells which make antibodies (immunoglobulins)  Monocytes – viruses, intracellular bacterial parasites, chronic infections (TB ) Agranulocytes

31. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Leukocytes Figure 17.10

32. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Leukopoiesis – stimulated by chemical messengers release is caused by supporting cells of red marrow and mature WBC Production of Leukocytes

33. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings (a) (b)(c) (d) (e) Hemocytoblast Myeloid stem cellLymphoid stem cell Myeloblast Lymphoblast Stem cells Committed cells Promyelocyte PromonocyteProlymphocyte Eosinophilic myelocyte Neutrophilic myelocyte Basophilic myelocyte Eosinophilic band cells Neutrophilic band cells Basophilic band cells Develop- mental pathway EosinophilsNeutrophilsBasophils Granular leukocytes Plasma cells Some become Monocytes Lymphocytes Macrophages (tissues) Agranular leukocytes Some become Figure 17.11

34. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Leukocytes Disorders: Leukemias  Leukemia refers to cancerous conditions involving WBCs  Myelocytic leukemia – involves myeloblasts  Lymphocytic leukemia – involves lymphocytes  Acute leukemia affects children  Chronic leukemia is more prevalent in older people

35. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Function in the clotting mechanism by forming a temporary plug that helps seal breaks in blood vessels  Thrombopoietin – hormone that regulates platelet formation Platelets - Thrombocytes

36. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Stem cellDevelopmental pathway HemocytoblastMegakaryoblastPromegakaryocyteMegakaryocytePlatelets Figure 17.12 Genesis of Platelets  The stem cell for platelets is the hemocytoblast  The sequential developmental pathway is as shown.

37. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Hemostasis  A series of reactions for stoppage of bleeding  During hemostasis, three phases occur in rapid sequence  Vascular spasms – immediate vasoconstriction in response to injury  Platelet plug formation-positive feedback mechanism  Coagulation (blood clotting)

38. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Coagulation Figure 17.13a

39. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Hemostasis Disorders: Thromboembolytic Conditions  Thrombus – a clot that develops and persists in an unbroken blood vessel  Thrombi can block circulation, resulting in tissue death  Coronary thrombosis – thrombus in blood vessel of the heart

40. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Hemostasis Disorders: Thromboembolytic Conditions  Embolus – a thrombus freely floating in the blood stream  Pulmonary emboli can impair the ability of the body to obtain oxygen  Cerebral emboli can cause strokes

41. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Hemophilias – hereditary bleeding disorders caused by lack of clotting factors Hemostasis Disorders: Bleeding Disorders

42. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Humans have 30 varieties of naturally occurring RBC antigens  Other blood groups (M, N, Dufy, Kell, and Lewis) are mainly used for legalities and do not cause agglutination problems Blood Groups

43. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings ABO Blood Groups Table 17.4

44. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn  Hemolytic disease of the newborn – Rh + antibodies of a sensitized Rh – mother cross the placenta and attack and destroy the RBCs of an Rh + baby  Rh – mother becomes sensitized when exposure to Rh + blood causes her body to synthesize Rh + antibodies

45. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn  The drug RhoGAM can prevent the Rh – mother from becoming sensitized  Treatment of hemolytic disease of the newborn involves pre-birth transfusions and exchange transfusions after birth