1. Turing, Expert Systems, and Neural Nets

2. Artificial Intelligence
Virtual reality (VR) - a computer-generated artificial reality which projects a person into a sensation of three-dimensional space
Artificial intelligence (AI) - a group of related technologies used for developing machines to emulate human qualities, such as learning, reasoning, communicating, seeing, and hearing.
Simulators - devices that represent the behavior of physical or abstract systems.
Virtual reality simulated air traffic controller training

3. Artificial Intelligence
Robotics - the development and study of machines that can perform work normally done by people
Robot - an automatic device that performs functions ordinarily executed by human beings or that operates with what appears to be almost human intelligence.
Security robot on patrol at the LA County Museum of Art

4. Artificial Intelligence
Natural language processing - the study of ways for computers to recognize and understand human language
Fuzzy logic - a method of dealing with imprecise data and uncertainty, with problems that have many answers rather than one.
Fuzzy logic is a superset of conventional (Boolean) logic that has been extended to handle the concept of partial truth -- truth values between "completely true" and "completely false". It was introduced by Dr. Lotfi Zadeh of UC/Berkeley in the 1960's as a means to model the uncertainty of natural language.
FACTOID: The term “computational linguistics” is often used interchangeably with “natural language processing.”

5. Artificial Intelligence
Fuzzy logic is used directly in very few applications.
The Sony PalmTop apparently uses a fuzzy logic decision tree algorithm to perform handwritten (well, computer lightpen) Kanji character recognition. Most applications of fuzzy logic use it as the underlying logic system for fuzzy expert systems.
To date, fuzzy expert systems are the most common use of fuzzy logic. They are used in several wide-ranging fields, including: o Linear and Nonlinear Control o Pattern Recognition o Financial Systems o Operation Research o Data Analysis

6. Artificial Intelligence
Genetic algorithm - a program that uses Darwinian principles of random mutation to improve itself
Expert System - An expert system is a computer program that contains stored knowledge and solves problems in a specific field in much the same way that a human expert would.
The knowledge typically comes from a series of conversations between the developer of the expert system and one or more experts. The completed system applies the knowledge to problems specified by a user.

7. Artificial Intelligence
Expert system - an interactive computer program used in solving problems that would otherwise require the assistance of a human expert
Three components of an expert system:
Knowledge base - -an expert system’s database of knowledge about a particular subject.
Inference engine - the software that controls the search of the expert system’s knowledge base and produces conclusions.
User interface - the display screen that the user deals with, in order to ask questions and receive answers.
FACTOID: Another name for an inference engine is a rule interpreter. Rules are a component of the knowledge base of an expert system.

8. Artificial Intelligence
Neural networks - use physical electronic devices or software to mimic the neurological structure of the human brain
Cyborgs - hybrids of machine and organisms
Artificial life - field of study concerned with “creatures”--computer instructions that are created, replicated, evolve, and die as if they were living organisms

9. Turing Who was Alan Turing?
Founder of computer science, mathematician, philosopher, codebreaker, and a strange visionary before his time:

10. Turing
1912 (23 June): Birth, Paddington, London : Sherborne School 1930: Death of friend Christopher Morcom : Undergraduate at King's College, Cambridge University : Quantum mechanics, probability, logic 1935: Elected fellow of King's College, Cambridge 1936: The Turing machine, computability, universal machine : Princeton University. Ph.D. Logic, algebra, number theory : Return to Cambridge. Introduced to German Enigma cipher machine
: The Bombe, machine for Enigma decryption : Breaking of U-boat Enigma, saving battle of the Atlantic : Chief Anglo-American crypto consultant. Electronic work. 1945: National Physical Laboratory, London 1946: Computer and software design leading the world : Programming, neural nets, and artificial intelligence 1948: Manchester University 1949: First serious mathematical use of a computer

11. Turing
1950: The Turing Test for machine intelligence 1951: Elected FRS. Non-linear theory of biological growth 1952: Arrested as a homosexual, loss of security clearance : Unfinished work in biology and physics 1954 (7 June): Death (suicide) by cyanide poisoning, Wilmslow, Cheshire.

12. Turing Test Turing's prophecy that computers would one day think
Turing's 1950 paper in Mind, Computing Machinery and Intelligence, has become one of the most cited in philosophical literature, and heads the list in David Chalmers' bibliography of the philosophy of Artificial Intelligence.

13. Turing Test Turing's claim
Turing held that computers would in time be programmed to acquire abilities rivalling human intelligence.
As part of his argument Turing put forward the idea of an 'imitation game', in which a human being and a computer would be interrogated under conditions where the interrogator would not know which was which, the communication being entirely by textual messages.

14. Turing Test
Turing argued that if the interrogator could not distinguish them by questioning, then it would be unreasonable not to call the computer intelligent.
Turing's 'imitation game' is now usually called 'the Turing test' for intelligence.

15. Turing Test The central role of computability
The most fundamental statement of Turing's thought in this paper is that the operations of the brain must be computable. The famous Test is secondary. Furthermore, the main point of his paper was to put forward constructive arguments for how machine intelligence should be achieved.Turing himself argued in this paper that the question of uncomputability in mathematics was not in fact relevant.

16. Turing Test
However the philosopher Michael Polanyi, at Manchester in 1950, disputed Turing's view. In 1961 the Oxford philosopher J. R. Lucas published a paper on the significance of Gödel's theorem which also argued to the contrary. Turing's view was defended by I. J. Good, and then later much elaborated by Douglas Hoftstadter in his 1979 book Gödel, Escher, Bach.

17. Turing Test
In 1989, Roger Penrose published The Emperor's New Mind which took a completely fresh view of Gödel's theorem, connecting uncomputability with the unknown laws governing quantum physics. His work Shadows of the Mind followed in A good entry point into this argument is the on-line paper Beyond the Doubting of a Shadow, Penrose's response to criticisms of Shadows of the Mind.

18. Turing Test
Turing test - a human judge converses by means of a computer terminal with two entities hidden in another location--one a person typing on a keyboard, the other a software program
Following the conversation, the judge must decide which entity is human. In this test, intelligence--the ability to think--is demonstrated by the computer’s success in fooling the judge.

19. Turing Test
Human entity
Computer program
Human judge