1. Chapter 1 Major Themes of Anatomy & Physiology
Form and Function
Origins of Biomedical Science
Scientific Method
Human Origins and Adaptations
Human Structure
Human Function
Language of Medicine

2. Anatomy - The Study of Form
Observation of surface structure
Cadaver dissection is cutting & separation of organs to study their relationships
Comparative anatomy is the study of more than one species to analyze evolutionary trends
Physical examination
palpation, auscultation, percussion
Gross anatomy is what is visible with naked eye
Histology is examination of cells with microscope
Ana=apart + tom=cut
Manipulation and examination of the reproductive tract of cattle via rectal palpation is possible because of several anatomical features of the cow:
1) As in other species, the reproductive tract of the bovine is suspended from the dorsal body wall by the broad ligament. The posterior part of the tract (vagina, cervix and, sometimes part of the uterus) is located in the pelvic cavity (formed by the two pelvic bones) and the anterior part of the tract hangs over the pelvic brim (uterus, oviduct, ovaries and, sometimes part of the cervix) and is suspended in the abdominal cavity. Moreover, the tract is located immediately below the rectum.
2) The rectum of the cow is large enough to allow insertion of the hand and arm of the palpator. Moreover, the rectal wall is sufficiently pliable to allow one to grasp and reproductive tract structures through the rectal wall.
3) The rectal wall of the cow is strong so that tearing, while possible, is rare. Note the situation is different in other species, notably the mare, where the rectal wall is more subject to damage. Nonetheless, care should be taken when performing rectal palpation of cattle because the rectum can be torn or otherwise damaged.
Features of the Reproductive Tract Ascertained by Rectal Palpation
Cervix
The cervix can be grasped and manipulated to insert an artificial insemination pipette or embryo flush catheter through the rings of the cervix and into the uterus. The cervix is also sometimes used to pull the reproductive tract further into the pelvic cavity during palpation so as to make palpation of ovarian and uterine structures easier.
Uterus
The uterus can be palpated to get a rough estimate of endocrine status of the cow. Cows under the influence of estrogen have a uterus with "tone" where the uterus feels turgid and muscular. Cows under the influence of progesterone may have a more flaccid-feeling uterus. A very small uterus can be an indication that a cow is reproductively quiescent or sterile.
After calving, the uterus can be palpated to determine involution (return of the uterus to a pre-pregnant condition; i.e., ready for breeding). The major criteria are size (reduction in size of uterine horns and a return of the horns to a more uniform size (i.e., the horn previously containing the fetus is no longer larger than the other horn), location in the body cavity (more forward into the pelvic cavity) and tone [less meaty" (i.e., large, soft and pliable) and more turgid].
During pregnancy (after ~ d 35-40), it is possible to palpate the presence of the conceptus by feeling for the "fetal slip". The fetal slip refers to the feel of the placental membranes moving through the fingers as the palpator first grasps the uterus and then lets it gradually slip through his fingers. Ultrasonic examination of the uterus can also result in visualization of the fetus.
Ovaries
Follicles can be felt as fluid-filled pliable structures. Note that only a fraction of the number of follicles actually present are usually detected by rectal palpation - ultrasound examination is required to detect all follicles on the ovary. The corpus luteum is a hard structure that often protrudes from the otherwise smooth curvature of the ovary. The best way to learn to identify ovarian structures is to practice using reproductive tracts obtained from a slaughterhouse.
Cystic ovaries are readily identified by rectal palpation as very large ovaries (twice or more in normal size). Cysts are follicular structures that have grown very large in size (>2.5 cm) which persist for 10 or more days and which lead to inhibition of ovulation and nymphomania. Follicular cysts can be luteinized or not. Luteinized cysts (about 30% of cysts) have a thicker wall than nonluteinized cysts. Luteinized follicular cysts can be confused with a fluid-filled corpus luteum which is a normal tructure that does not disrupt the estrous cycle.
Uses of Rectal Palpation
1) artificial insemination
2) non-surgical recovery of embryos for subsequent embryo transfer
3) pregnancy diagnosis
4) postpartum reproductive exam to determine suitability of the animal for breeding and to estimate whether the cow is cyclic.
5) clinical diagnosis of cystic ovarian disease and uterine infections.

3. Early Anatomical Drawings
On the left, medieval depicting pregnant woman with a fetus in the uterus and shows the heart lungs, arteries and digestive tracts
On the right Andreas Vesalius’s 1543 book De Humani Corporis Fabricia

4. Physiology - The Study of Function
Study of bodily functions by use of methods of experimental science
Comparative physiology involves the study of different species
Basis for the development of new drugs and medical procedures
Anatomy is what shapes there are, Physiology is what those shapes do
The first and only women's pole vault world champion, Stacy Dragila won the first-ever women's Olympic pole vault in 2000

6. Beginnings of Medicine
Physicians in Mesopotamia & Egypt 3000 years ago used herbal drugs, salts & physical therapy
Greek physician Hippocrates established a code of ethics & urged physicians to seek causes of disease
Aristotle called causes for disease physiologi & said that complex structures are built from simpler parts
Galen, physician to the Roman gladiators, saw science as a method of discovery
did animal dissections since use of cadavers banned
wrote book advising followers to trust their own observation
Plato and Aristotle, from Raphael "School of Athens" (Fresco)

7. Birth of Modern Medicine
Vesalius published accurate gross anatomy atlas (1543)
Leeuwenhoek invented microscope to look at fabrics ( )
Hooke (1665) and Zeiss (1860) developed & improved compound microscope (described plant cell walls in 1665)
Schleiden & Schwann thought that all organisms were composed of cells -- cell theory of 1839
Clinical practice was in dismal state
bleeding to remove toxins, operate with dirty hands, no anesthesia for amputations
Even though Vesalius was backed by Kings such as Charles V, and Phillip II, he was still criticized by followers of Galen. It was only the protection of Royalty that kept the Spanish Inquisition from him.

8. Early Microscopes
Remember Van Leewonhoek was not a scientist, he work with fabrics, and developed the microscope as a hobby. Hooke had difficulty corresponding to the Dutchman who tended to mumble.

9. Living in a Revolution Pioneers in 19th & 20th centuries
established scientific way of thinking
replaced superstition with natural laws
momentous discoveries
germ theory of disease
heredity & structure of DNA
Now at threshold of modern biomedical science
technology enhanced diagnostic ability & life-support strategies
genetic revolution --library of the molecular structure of every human gene is finished
Gene therapy being used to treat disease

10. Scientific Method Bacon (1561-1626) and Descartes (1596-1650)
were not scientists but did invent new habits of scientific thought
scientific method as habits of disciplined creativity, careful observations, logical thinking & analysis of observations
way of seeking trends & drawing generalizations
Convinced governments of England & France to form academies of science that still exist today
Scientific way of thinking based on assumptions & methods that are reliable, objective & testable

11. Making observations until capable of drawing generalizations and making predictions
anatomy is a product of inductive method
Proof in science can not go past “proved beyond reasonable doubt”
reliable methods of observation
tested and confirmed repeatedly
not falsified by any credible observation
In science, all truth is tentative
Inductive Method

12. Hypothetico-Deductive Method
Physiological knowledge gained by this method
Ask a question and formulate a hypothesis -- an educated possible answer
Good hypothesis
consistent with what is already known
capable of being tested and falsified with certain evidence
If nothing could prove it wrong, it is not a scientific belief
Hypotheses are written as If-Then predictions
modified and rewritten after testing

14. Experimental Design Sufficient sample size to prevent chance event
Control group and treatment group receive the same treatment except for the variable being tested
Prevention of psychosomatic effects
use of placebo in control group
Experimenter bias
prevented with double-blind study
Statistical testing to be sure the difference between groups was not random, but was due to variable being tested
Placebo: Latin for I shall please
“Have your pirin” The bird cage
Milgram Experiment Forcing the tester to hurt the subject.

15. Peer Review Critical evaluation by other experts in the field
prior to funding
verification and repeatability of results
Ensures honesty, objectivity & quality in science

16. Health Minister Manto Tshabalala-Msimang of South Africa, known for putting vegetable remedies ahead of anti-retrovirals, endorses Dr Matthias Rath's vitamin treatments.

17. Dr. Rath and his cure for AIDS: Mega Doses of Vitamin C
A doctor who worked with Nobel Prize winner Linus Pauling
has taken the advocacy of vitamins into all-out war on the pharmaceutical companies
Buys ad space in the NY Times, and fills them with editorials masked as facts
Without getting confirmation of his studies is taking his cure to the people of Africa
Problems: Too much Vitamin C can lead to Diarrhea which can kill an AIDS patient.
Blames George Bush and Tony Blair for AIDS

18. Facts, Laws and Theories
Scientific fact is information that can be independently verified by any trained person
iron deficiency leads to anemia
Law of nature is a description of the way matter and energy behave
resulting from inductive reasoning & repeated observations
written as verbal statements or mathematical formulae
Theory is a summary of conclusions drawn from observable facts
it provides explanations and predictions
sliding filament theory of muscle contraction

19. Logic is the anatomy of thought -John Locke
Conditional arguments: the basis of hypothesis forming. Two parts
Part 1: If p then q
P = antecedent
Q = Consequent
Part 2 allows us to draw conclusions
If P happens then Q happens (Modus Ponens
If Q did not happen, P did not happen (Modus Tollens)
Consider the following examples:
If Chinua arrives late, he will miss the bus.
Chinua will miss the bus if he comes late.
Chinua, if he arrives late, will miss the bus
Note you can change the way its said
For economy, we might shorten that to "If arrive late, then miss bus." In this case, p=arrive late, and q=miss bus.
In other words, if the original conditional is true, we can draw the following valid conclusions: Chinua arrived late and therefore missed the bus; or Chinua did not miss the bus, and therefore he must not have arrived late. These two valid conditional arguments are expressed by the following paradigms:
Example 1. "If Chinua arrives late, he will miss the bus. And he does arrives late. Therefore, he misses the bus." This is a valid argument, because it fits one of the two forms for a valid conditional (in this case, modus ponens):
If p (arrives late), then q (misses bus). P (arrives late)
Therefore, Q (misses bus).
Example 2. "If Chinua arrives late, he will miss the bus. And he does miss the bus. Therefore, he must have arrived late." This is an invalid argument, because it does not fit one of the two valid forms. In a valid conditional, the second premise must be either p or not q. In this case, the second premise ("miss bus") would be q, so no valid conclusion can be drawn. We say this second premise "affirms the consequent," which is invalid. (This may sound like a good argument, but it is easy to see why it is not, because the conditional says nothing about what might happen when Chinua does not miss the bus. Perhaps he arrived on time, or perhaps he got there late and the bus was delayed--we have insufficient information to conclude anything.)
Example 3. "If Chinua arrives late, he will miss the bus. But he does not arrive late. Therefore, he did not miss the bus." This is an invalid argument, because it does not fit one of the two valid forms. In a valid conditional, the second premise must be either p or not q. In this case, the second premise ("not arrive late") would be not p, so no valid conclusion can be drawn. We say this second premise "negates the antecedent," which is invalid. (Again, this may sound like a good argument, but it is easy to see why it is not, because the conditional says nothing about what will happen if Chinua arrives on time. Perhaps he did catch the bus, perhaps he fell asleep and missed it anyway--we have insufficient information to conclude anything.)
Example 4. "If Chinua arrives late, he will miss the bus. But he does not miss the bus. Therefore, he did not arrive late." This is a valid argument, because it fits one of the two valid forms (in this case, modus tollens):
If p (arrives late), then q (misses bus). Not q (not miss bus).
Therefore, not p (not arrive late).
Note there can be problems with the original thing: If P then Q has to be a valid statement

20. There is a claim that lycopene, the reddish substance in tomatoes and peppers, is of value in protecting people from Alzheimer Disease. How would you, as a scientist, go about substantiating or refuting this suggestion?