1. Intro to Nuclear Chemistry

2. How does a nuclear reactor work?

3. How does a small mass contained in this bomb cause……
Nuclear Bomb of 1945 known as “fat man”

4. …this huge nuclear explosion?

5. Is there radon in your basement?

6. Notation

7. NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY Deal with the nucleus of the atom.
Inside the nucleus there are 2 type of subatomic particles. They are called NUCLEONS = Protons and neutrons
The nucleons are bound together by a strong force called binding force.

8. Atoms of a given element with:
Isotopes
Atoms of a given element with:
same #protons
but
different # neutrons

9. H H H

10. Isotopes of Carbon

11. Radioactive Isotopes
Isotopes of certain unstable elements that spontaneously emit particles and energy from the nucleus.
Henri Beckerel 1896 accidentally observed radioactivity of uranium salts that were fogging photographic film.
His associates were Marie and Pierre Curie.

12. Marie Curie: born 1867, in Poland as Maria Sklodowska
Lived in France
1898 discovered the elements polonium and radium.

13. Marie Curie a Pioneer of Radioactivity
Winner of 1903 Nobel Prize for Physics with Henri Becquerel and her husband, Pierre Curie.
Winner of the sole 1911 Nobel Prize for Chemistry.

14. RADIOACTIVITY Emission of rays and particles from unstable nuclei.
When a nucleus is emitting rays or particles it is said that is DECAYING or is disintegrating.

15. Stability of nuclei:
Depend on the ratio between the neutrons and protons. Too many or too few neutrons lead to an unstable nucleus. All elements with more than 83 protons are unstable.

16. Types of Natural Decay

17. NATURAL DECAY
There are 4 types of naturally occurring disintegration or decay. USE TABLE O!
Alpha ( a ) decay Nucleus of He
Beta ( b ) decay Electrons
Gamma (g ) radiation - Energy
Positron emission

19. SeparationAlphaBetaGamma.MOV Separation of Radiation

23. Transmutation
When the nucleus of one element is changed into the nucleus of another element. IT CAN ONLY HAPPEN IN A NUCLEAR REACTION!!!

24. Nuclear Reactions
The chemical properties of the nucleus are independent of the state of chemical combination of the atom.
In writing nuclear equations we are not concerned with the chemical form of the atom in which the nucleus resides.
It makes no difference if the atom is as an element or a compound.
Mass and charges MUST BE BALANCED!!!

25. Alpha Decay Emission of alpha particles a : helium nuclei
two protons and two neutrons
charge +2e 
can travel a few inches through air
can be stopped by a sheet of paper, clothing.

26. Alpha Decay
Uranium Thorium

27. Alpha Decay

28. He U Th He Alpha Decay: Loss of an -particle (a helium nucleus) + 4 2
238 92
 Th
234 90 He 4 2 +

29. Alpha Decay Mass changes by 4
The remaining fragment has 2 less protons
Alpha radiation is the less penetrating of all the nuclear radiation (it is the most massive one!)

30. Alpha decay: When a nucleus emits alpha particles.
* Atomic number decreases by 2.
* Mass number decreases by 4.
* Neutrons decrease by 2.

31.  e I Xe e Beta Decay: Loss of a -particle (a high energy electron) +−1 e or I
131 53 Xe 54
 + e −1

32. Beta Decay
Beta particles b: electrons ejected from the nucleus when neutrons decay
( n -> p+ +b- )
Beta particles have the same charge and mass as "normal" electrons.

33. Beta Decay
Beta particles b: electrons ejected from the nucleus when neutrons decay
n -> p+ +b-
Beta particles have the same charge and mass as "normal" electrons.
Can be stopped by aluminum foil or a block of wood.

34. Beta Decay When a neutron becomes a proton and emits an electron.
* Atomic Number or number of protons increases by 1
* Number of neutrons decreases by one.
* Mass number remains the same.

35. Beta Decay

36. Beta Decay
Thorium Protactinium

37. Beta Decay
Involves the conversion of a neutron in the nucleus into a proton and an electron.
Beta radiation has high energies, can travel up to 300 cm in air.
Can penetrate the skin

38. Beta decay
Write the reaction of decay for C-14

39. Positron Emission When a proton changes to a neutron emits a positron.
*Atomic number (number of protons)decreases by 1
*Number of neutrons increase by 1.
*Mass number remains same

40. Gamma Emission:
Loss of a -ray (high-energy radiation that almost always accompanies the loss of a nuclear particle) 

41. Gamma Decay
Gamma radiation g : electromagnetic energy that is released. 
Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves.
They have no mass.
Gamma radiation has no charge.
Most Penetrating, can be stopped by 1m thick concrete or a several cm thick sheet of lead.

42. 3 Main Types of Radioactive Decay
Alpha a
Beta b
Gamma g

43. Examples of Radioactive Decay
Alpha Decay
Po  Pb + He
Beta Decay p n e
n  p e
C  N e
Gamma Decay
Ni  Ni g
(excited nucleus)

46. Nuclear Stability
Depends on the neutron to proton ratio.

47. Band of Stability
Number of Neutrons, (N)
Number of Protons (Z)

48. What happens to an unstable nucleus?
They will undergo decay
The type of decay depends on the reason for the instability

49. What type of decay will happen if the nucleus contains too many neutrons?
Beta Decay

50. Example: C  N + e In N-14 the ratio of neutrons to protons is 1:1 14
C  N e
In N-14 the ratio of neutrons to protons is 1:1 6 -1 7

51. Artificial Transmutations
To change one element into another. Only possible in nuclear reactions, never in a chemical reaction.
TWO REACTANTS, A FAST MOVING PARTICLE AND A TARGET MATERIAL
In order to modify the nucleus huge amount of energy are involved.
These reactions are carried in particle accelerators or in nuclear reactors

52. Artificial transmutations
Type I : Collision of a charged particle with a target nucleus. Carried in a particle accelerator.
Charged particles could be protons, alpha particles or electrons. Positive particles have to move very fast to overcame electrostatic repulsions between them and the nucleus.

53. Particle accelerators or smashers are used to accelerate charged particles with magnetic or electrostatic fields .

54. Particle Accelerators (only for charged particles!)
These particle accelerators are enormous, having circular tracks with radii that are miles long.

55. Cyclotron and synchrotron are particle accelerators
Nuclear transformations can be induced by accelerating a particle and colliding it with the nuclide.

56. Type 2: when a neutron collides with a target nucleus.
Neutrons can not be accelerated.
Neutrons are products of natural decay, natural radioactive materials or are expelled of an artificial transmutation.
Neutrons are obtained as by-products in nuclear reactors.
These reactions are used to prepare radioactive nuclei from stable nuclei.

57. Mass defect
The mass of the nucleus is always smaller than the masses of the individual particles added up.
The difference is the mass defect.
That small amount translate to huge amounts of energy E = (m) c2
That energy is the Binding energy of the nucleus, and is the energy needed to separate the nucleus.

58. Energy in Nuclear Reactions
For example, the mass change for the decay of 1 mol of uranium-238 is − g.
The change in energy, E, is then
E = (m) c2
E = (−4.6  10−6 kg)(3.00  108 m/s)2
E = −4.1  1011 J This amount is 50,000 times greater than the combustion of 1 mol of CH4

59. Types of nuclear reactions fission and fusion
The larger the binding energies, the more stable the nucleus is toward decomposition.
Heavy nuclei gain stability (and give off energy) if they are fragmented into smaller nuclei. (FISSION)

60. Even greater amounts of energy are released if very light nuclei are combined or fused together. (FUSION)

61. Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission is the type of reaction carried out in nuclear reactors.

62. Nuclear fission:
A large nucleus splits into several small nuclei when impacted by a neutron, and energy is released in this process

63. Nuclear Fission
Bombardment of the radioactive nuclide with a neutron starts the process.
Neutrons released in the transmutation strike other nuclei, causing their decay and the production of more neutrons.

64. Nuclear Fission
This process continues in what we call a nuclear chain reaction.

65. Controlled vs Uncontrolled nuclear reaction
Controlled reactions: inside a nuclear power plant
Uncontrolled reaction: nuclear bomb

66. Nuclear Reactors
In nuclear reactors the heat generated by the reaction is used to produce steam that turns a turbine connected to a generator.

67. Nuclear Reactors
The reaction is kept in check by the use of control rods.
These block the paths of some neutrons, keeping the system from reaching a dangerous supercritical mass.

68. FUSION Combining small nucleii to form a larger one.
Require millions of K of temperature

69. Fusion 1H + 1H  2H + 1e + energy 1H + 2H  3He + energy
3He + 3He  4He + 21H + energy
Reaction that occurs in the sun
Temperature 107 K
Heavier elements are synthesized in hotter stars 108 K using Carbon as fuel

70. Nuclear Fusion Fusion would be a superior method of generating power.
The good news is that the products of the reaction are not radioactive.
The bad news is that in order to achieve fusion, the material must be in the plasma state at several million kelvins.

71. Nuclear Fusion (thermonuclear reactions)
Tokamak apparati like the one shown at the right show promise for carrying out these reactions.
They use magnetic fields to heat the material.
3 million K degrees were reached inside but is not enough to begin fusion which requires 40 million K

73. There are two main confinement approaches:
Fission is the release of energy by splitting heavy nuclei such as Uranium-235 and Plutonium-239
Fusion is the release of energy by combining two light nuclei such as deuterium and tritium
D-T Fusion D
4He
3.52 MeV T
Neutron
14.1 MeV
The goal of fusion research is to confine fusion ions at high enough temperatures and pressures, and for a long enough time to fuse
This graph shows the exponential rate of progress over the decades
How does a nuclear plant work?
Each fission releases 2 or 3 neutrons
These neutrons are slowed down with a moderator to initiate more fission events
Control rods absorb neutrons to keep the chain reaction in check
Controlled Fission Chain Reaction
Confinement Progress
There are two main confinement approaches:
The energy from the reaction drives a steam cycle to produce electricity
Magnetic Confinement uses strong magnetic fields to confine the plasma
This is a cross-section of the proposed International Thermo-nuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER)
Nuclear Power Plant
Nuclear Power produces no greenhouse gas emissions; each year U.S. nuclear plants prevent atmospheric emissions totaling:
5.1 million tons of sulfur dioxide
2.4 million tons of nitrogen oxide
164 million tons of carbon
Nuclear power in 1999 was the cheapest
source of electricity costing 1.83 c/kWh
compared to 2.04 c/kWh from coal
Inertial Confinement uses powerful lasers or ion beams to compress a pellet of fusion fuel to the right temperatures and pressures
This is a schematic of the National Ignition Facility (NIF) being built at Lawrence Livermore National Lab

74. January 11
HALF LIFE

75. Radioactive Half-Life (t1/2 ):
The time required for one half of the nuclei in a given sample to decay.
After each half life the mass of sample remaining is half.
Different Isotopes have different half lives. Use table N

76. Common Radioactive Isotopes
Isotope Half-Life Radiation Emitted
Carbon ,730 years b, g
Radon days a
Uranium x 108 years a, g
Uranium x 109 years a

77. Radioactive Half-Life
After one half life there is 1/2 of original sample left.
After two half-lives, there will be
1/2 of the 1/2 = 1/4 the original sample.

78. Graph of Amount of Remaining Nuclei vs Time

79. Example
You have 100 g of radioactive C-14. The half-life of C-14 is 5730 years.
How many grams are left after one half-life? Answer:50 g
How many grams are left after two half-lives?

80. Problem
If 80 g of a radioactive sample decays to 10 g in 30 min what is the element’s half life?

81. How many days will take a sample of I-131 to undergo three half life periods?

82. What is the total mass of Rn-222 remaining in an original mass 160 mg sample of Rn-222 after 19.1 days?

83. CHEM CYCLE 2 FINAL REVIEW
TOPICS

84. MAIN TOPICS 1 -Matter – definition – classification
Element – compounds- mixtures – Homogeneous heterogeneous - representations
2 .-Physical and Chemical Properties and changes
3.-Temperature – definition –scales– conversions
4.-Heat problems /heat of fusion / heat of vaporization
5.-Heating curves
6.-Gas problems
7.-Liquids – boiling vs evaporation / Vapor pressure
8.-Solids – definition – sublimation
9- Measuring- units. Density – significant figures

85. 9. The atom – history , subatomic particles, isotopes, atomic number, atomic mass, mass number, ground state, excited state.
10. Nuclear chemistry – table O and N
Natural decay, half life, natural decay, artificial transmutation, fission vs fusion, uses of radioisotopes.

86. Answers to Nuclear reaction and half life
1 d d 3 b d
/12.4= 3 half lives 2g
6 10days /14.3= 5 hl 1g
8a) 4g b) 25 y
9) a) alpha b) years c) 3hl 12.5g
10) a)+b b)positron decay

87. Working with half life 1 7.64 days 2 2 g 3 3 hl 4 1/8 5 3 hl 6 8.021 d
4 1/8
5 3 hl d
7 ~ 128 g y
9 1/8

88. Measuring Radioactivity
One can use a device like this Geiger counter to measure the amount of activity present in a radioactive sample.
The ionizing radiation creates ions, which conduct a current that is detected by the instrument.

89. Uses of radioisotopes Medicine
Medical imaging –Trace amounts of short half life isotopes can be ingested and the path of the isotope traced by the radiation given off
I-131 is used to treat and diagnosed thyroid disorders
Cancer treatment – radiation kills cancerous cells more easily than healthy cells.
Cobalt-60 emits g rays
Technetium-99 is accumulated in cancerous tumors and can be detected by a scan.

90. Sterilization – γ – rays can be used to kill germs and hence sterilize food and plastic equipment Co-60 and Cs-137 are used as source of g rays.
Industry – used to trace blockages in pipes, or to test the thickness of materials (by putting a source on one side of the material and detector on the other)

91. Carbon dating
Once a living organism dies, it is no longer taking in any Carbon.
C14 is radioactive, and decays over time.
By measuring the activity of C14 in an object and comparing it with the amount of C14 which was present initially you can estimate when the organism died

92. Each gram of carbon in a living organism emits about 15 disintegration per minute (dmp). After the organism dies and time passes, C-14 continues to decay but it is not replaced. 7dpm per gram of carbon implies that de organism lived 5700 years ago.
After 4 half lives C-14 becomes ineffective.
U-238 decays to Pb-206. The ratio of the 2 is used to date rocks and geological formations.

95. Smoke detectors
A radioactive source ionizes the air between two electrodes. Thus current flows between them
If smoke particles enter this space they stick to the ions and the current is reduced.
This reduced current triggers the alarm