1. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 1 John W. Santrock Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood 12

2. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 2 Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood What Is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood? What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing? How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? What Changes in Language Development Occur in Middle and Late Childhood? What Characterizes Children’s Achievement?

3. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 3 Concrete Operational Thought Ability to classify or divide things into different sets or subsets and to consider their interrelationships Ability to do reversible mental actions on real, concrete objects Ability to focus on more than single property of an object What Is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood?

4. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 4 Concrete Operational Thought Seriation: ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension Transitivity: the ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions What Is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood?

5. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 5 Classification: An Important Ability in Concrete Operational Thought A family tree of 4 generations; a preoperational child has trouble classifying the members Fig. 12.1

6. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 6 Evaluating Piaget’s Theory Contributions –Founded children’s cognitive development –View of children as active, constructive thinkers –Inventive ways to discover how children act and adapt Criticisms –Cognitive abilities can emerge earlier or later –Stages not unitary structures of thought –Some can be trained to reason at higher stage –Culture and education exert stronger influence What Is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood?

7. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 7 Neo-Piagetians Argue Piaget got some things right Reinterpret information-processing perspective –More emphasis on attention and memory –Important to consider children’s strategies What Is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood?

8. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 8 Piaget and Education Take constructivist approach Facilitate rather than direct learning Consider child’s knowledge and level of thinking Use ongoing assessment Promote student’s intellectual health Turn classroom into setting of exploration and discovery What Is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood?

9. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 9 Memory Long-term memory –Relatively permanent; has huge capacity –Increases with age –Depends on strategies learned What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing?

10. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 10 Memory Knowledge and Expertise –Experts Superior knowledge and recall Knowledge influences organization, representation, interpretation of information Ability to remember, reason, solve problems What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing?

11. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 11 Memory Strategies or control processes –Deliberate mental activities for processing information –Mental imagery used by young children –Elaboration used by older children –Fuzzy trace theory: Verbatim memory trace: precise details Gist: central idea of information What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing?

12. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 12 Thinking Critical thinking: reflective, productive, and evaluating –Grasping deeper meaning of ideas –Keeping an open mind –Deciding for oneself What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing?

13. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 13 Thinking Creative thinking –Ability to think in novel or unusual ways –Different from intelligence Convergent thinking – intelligence reflected on conventional tests; produce one correct answer Divergent thinking – creativity; produce many answers for one question What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing?

14. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 14 Strategies for Creative Thinking What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Introduce children to creative people Provide stimulating environments Encourage internal motivation Brainstorming Don’t overcontrol

15. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 15 Thinking Scientific thinking –Often aims to identify causal relations –Preadolescents have greater difficulty separating prior theories from evidence More influenced by happenstance events than by overall pattern of occurrences What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing?

16. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 16 Thinking Metacognition –Cognition about cognition –Most focus on metamemory Children ages 5 to 6 –Familiar, related items easier to remember –Gist of a story is easier to remember –Focus on knowledge about strategies Effective planning aids problem solving What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing?

17. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 17 Intelligence and Its Assessment Intelligence –Problem-solving skills and ability to learn –Individual differences exist Stable, consistent ways Most research, testing focus here How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

18. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 18 The Binet Tests Mental age (MA): measure of an individual’s level of mental development Intelligence quotient (IQ) Normal distribution How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? MA CA X 100 IQ

19. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 19 Intelligence and Its Assessment Response areas in Stanford-Binet –Verbal ability and problem-solving skills –Ability to learn from and adapt to experiences of everyday life –Can only be measured indirectly –Focus is on individual differences How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

20. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 20 The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

21. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 21 Intelligence and Its Assessment The Wechsler Scales –Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence III – (WISC-III) –Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – IV Integrated (WISC-IV integrated) –Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III) How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

22. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 22 Intelligence and Its Assessment The Wechsler Scales –Provide overall IQ –Yield verbal and performance IQs 6 verbal subscales 5 performance subscales Patterns of strengths and weaknesses shown How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

23. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 23 Types of Intelligence Multiple-factor theory Two-factor theory Thurstone’s theory that intelligence consists of seven primary mental abilities: verbal comprehension, number ability, word fluency, spatial visualization, associative memory, reasoning, perceptual speed Spearman’s theory that individuals have both general intelligence, g, and specific intelligences How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

24. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 24 Types of Intelligence Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory –Three main types of intelligence Analytical Creative Practical –High analytic ability favored in conventional schools; creative students don’t conform How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

25. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 25 Types of Intelligence Verbal Mathematical Spatial Bodily-Kinesthetic Musical Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind

26. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 26 Types of Intelligence Evaluating multiple-intelligence views –Stimulated educators to think more about children’s competencies –Motivated new educational program development and assessment –Some critics say views go too far –Controversy exists: multiple vs. general How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

27. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 27 Types of Intelligence Culture and Intelligence –Conceptual differences among cultures Eastern: intelligence enables successful social role engagement Western: intelligence is reasoning and thinking –Other cultures blur Eastern and Western distinctions How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

28. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 28 Interpreting Differences in IQ scores Influence of genetics –Comparison of identical and fraternal twins Identical twin comparisons: reared together and apart –Adoption studies Effects of environmental change –Heritability: variance due to genetics Controversial; not without flaws How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

29. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 29 Interpreting Differences in IQ scores Environmental influences –Parental income and communication styles –Schooling, teachers, and peers –Global effects of education on amount of knowledge one now possesses –Flynn Effect: IQ scores increasing rapidly –Emphasis on prevention, not remedial How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

30. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 30 Interpreting Differences in IQ scores Group Differences –US: African American and Latino – average scores lower than whites –Gap is narrowing Social, economical, educational gains for disadvantaged Adoption into advantaged families –Stereotype threat and biased tests may affect IQ test performance How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

31. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 31 Interpreting Differences in IQ scores Creating Culture-Fair Tests –Tests free of cultural bias –Two types devised Items known in all SES and ethnic backgrounds No verbal questions –Difficulty in creating Time limits may create bias Language differences Individual differences within groups How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

32. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 32 Interpreting Differences in IQ scores Using Intelligence Tests –Avoid stereotyping and expectations –IQ is not sole indicator of competence –Use caution in interpreting overall IQ scores How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

33. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 33 Extremes of Intelligence Mental Retardation –Condition of limited mental ability –Several IQ classifications –Causes Organic: genetic or brain disorder Cultural-familial: no causal evidence found How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

34. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 34 Extremes of Intelligence How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? IQClassification%Limitations 55-70Mild89Difficulty adapting to daily life 40-54Moderate6Can work, support oneself 25-39Severe3.5Can talk, do simple tasks, require extensive supervision 0-24Profoundly1Require constant supervision IQ Classifications of Mental Retardation

35. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 35 Extremes of Intelligence Giftedness –Above-average intelligence (IQ over 130) and superior talent for something Precocity March to their own drummer Passion to master How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

36. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 36 Vocabulary, Grammar, and Metalinguistic Awareness Reading and writing skills are important –Learn to use in more complex ways –Mental vocabulary organization changes –Improved reasoning and analytic skills Metalinguistic awareness –Allows children to think about their language –Use language in culturally appropriate ways What Changes in Language Development Occur in Middle and Late Childhood?

37. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 37 Reading Basic-skills- and-phonetics approach Whole-language approach Instruction should parallel children’s natural language learning; reading materials should be whole and meaningful Stresses phonetics and basic rules for translating symbols into sounds; early reading instruction should involve simplified materials What Changes in Language Development Occur in Middle and Late Childhood?

38. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 38 Bilingualism and Second Language Learning Bilingualism –Ability to speak two languages Learning 2nd language easier for children Child’s ability to pronounce 2nd language with correct accent decreases with age Bilingualism has positive effect on children’s cognitive development Bilingual education is controversial What Changes in Language Development Occur in Middle and Late Childhood?

39. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 39 What Characterizes Children’s Achievement? Achievement motivation –Desire to accomplish something –Gain mastery over our world –Explore the unknown with enthusiasm and curiosity –Achieve heights of success What Characterizes Children’s Achievement?

40. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 40 What Characterizes Children’s Achievement? Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation –Extrinsic motivation External incentives: rewards and punishments –Intrinsic motivation Internal factors: self-determination, curiosity, challenge, and effort What Characterizes Children’s Achievement?

41. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 41 Mastery Motivation and Mindset Mastery motivation: –Task oriented; focus on learning strategies and process of achievement –Two responses to challenges Helpless orientation –Attribute difficulty to lack of ability Performance orientation –Focus only on winning What Characterizes Children’s Achievement?

42. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 42 Mastery Motivation and Mindset Mindset –Cognitive view person develops of self –Two mindsets Fixed – qualities cannot change; similar to helpless orientation Growth – qualities can change and improve; similar to mastery orientation What Characterizes Children’s Achievement?

43. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 43 Self-Efficacy Belief that one can master situation and produce favorable outcomes –Linked to effort and persistency –Critical factor in achievement –Linked to intrinsic motivation What Characterizes Children’s Achievement?

44. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 44 Goal-Setting, Planning, and Self-Regulation Self-efficacy and achievement improve when individuals set goals that are –Specific –Proximal –Challenging Long-term and short-term are needed What Characterizes Children’s Achievement?

45. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 45 Social Relationships and Contexts Relationships affect achievement Parents –Childrearing practices affect achievement –Positive parenting has best results –Provided activities and resources Peers Teachers What Characterizes Children’s Achievement?

46. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 46 Social Relationships and Contexts Ethnicity –Diversity that exists among ethnic minority children is evidenced in achievement –Must distinguish difference from deficiency –SES often overlooked SES is better predictor of achievement May affect motivation –Quality of schools makes a difference What Characterizes Children’s Achievement?

47. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 47 Social Relationships and Contexts Culture –U.S. students perform badly in math and science tests –Gap widens with age –Asian teachers spend more time on math –U.S. parents have lower math expectations What Characterizes Children’s Achievement?

48. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 48 The End 12