1. Native America v. America A Tumultuous Relationship

2. The Question: ► Evaluate the validity of this statement: The relationship between Native Americans and Americans (1620-present) has always been negative.

3. Background : Pre-colonization Southwest: large irrigation systems, large towns, etcSouthwest: large irrigation systems, large towns, etc Great Plains: sedentary farming, permanent settlements, some nomadic tribes hunted buffalo East: greatest food sources— farming, hunting, gathering all togetherEast: greatest food sources— farming, hunting, gathering all together

4. Three categorizations: American view of American Indians As Neighbors As Landowners As citizens

5. As Neighbors: Encounter

6. Exchange ► The Good: Exchange of crops, animals, farming ► The Bad: Importation of disease and violence

7. Relationship with Spanish ► Conquistadores, encomiendas  came as conquerors  way more men than women= intermarriage

8. Relationship with French ► fur trade  didn’t want to establish substantial towns  needed Nat. Am help with finding fur  some intermarriage

9. Relationship with British  Settlement, New Society  forced to be amicable because of need ► Established trading in New England ► came to build a new society ► paganism threat to religious society ► more self-reliant, more hostile

10. 1675: King Philip’s War  Wampanoags direct response to colonial attempt to apply their laws to tribe  Killed over 1000 settlers in 3 years  1676: Mohawks allied with colonists kill Metacomet (King Philip)

11. Revolution Pick Your Horse ► ~ 13,000 warriors fought on the British side ► Americans resented tribal help to Brits  wanted to treat them as a conquered people

12. Noble Savages  Others saw them as needing to be civilized (Jefferson)

13. Isolation and Eradication 1830s-1840s  “noble savage” idea had become “savage” especially in West (remember common man)

14. Assimilation 1880s-1940s ► return to idea that Indians are civilizable  Offshoot of Progressive era ► “Kill the Indian, save the Man”

15. Indian Boarding Schools ► creation of Indian boarding schools  No language  No traditions  No families  Sent out to white families on breaks to work as servants  1879: Carlisle Indian Industrial School (PA)

16. Conservation of Culture 1935-1950 ► Indian New Deal ► Romanticization of American Indian culture  Many stereotypes still prevalent

17. Self-Determination: American Indian Movement 1970s ► AIM  Grew out of Civil Rights Movement of 1960s  reclamation of tribal land  Much more forceful than other movements ► 75 takeovers of federal buildings or land ► 1969: Alcatraz, 1972: Trail of Broken Treaties, 1973: Pine Ridge (Wounded Knee)

18. As Landowners

19. Go West, Young Man ► Land issue:  westward movement of settlers creates tensions with Native American tribes

20. French and Indian War: Stuck in the Middle with You  1748: Iroquois grant trading rights to English merchants in interior  tensions build until war breaks out in 1754 (Fort Necessity, Fort Duquesne)  Almost all tribes aligned with French  Iroquois aligned with GB, but also essentially didn’t fight at all

21. Back to Where We Started  War ends with Peace of Paris (1763) ► white settlers begin crossing into valley immediately  Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763)  Proclamation of 1763 ► improved British relations with Native Americans ► line didn’t work

22. Land in the New Republic ► Western Frontier  Land ordinances of 1784-87 led to border conflicts

23. Sign on the Dotted Line  1784, 85, 86: Iroquois, Choctaws, Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaws all signed treaties with government ceding land

24. Resistance  1791: Little Turtle led Shawnee, Miami and Delaware in battles near Ohio border

25. 1795: Miami signed Treaty of Grenville ► lots of land for recognition of claim to the part they kept ► first recognition by US gov’t of sovereignty of Indian nations

26. More Tricky Treaties ► 1801: Jefferson: assimilate or move west of Mississippi  Give up claims in Northwest Territory ► Harrison manipulated treaties  by 1807: US had treaty rights to Eastern Michigan, Southern Indiana, most of IL  land taken in GA, MI, TN

27. Tecumseh and the Prophet  Rise of the Prophet (Tenskwatawa) ► brought tribes together through religion (so rolled over to politics and military)  Prophet’s brother was Tecumseh ► led secular unification of all tribes of Mississippi Valley  1811: Battle of Tippecanoe

28. Indian Removal 1830-1839 Indian Removal 1830-1839 1. Remember: savage 2. Fear of unending violence in West 3. Desire for land

29. Congressional Legislation ► 1830: Removal Act  provided funds for negotiating treaties that would remove tribes to West ► 1834: Indian Intercourse Act created Indian Territory west of Mississippi

30. Dislocation of Five Civilized Tribes ► 1830: Choctaws removed ► 1835: Treaty of New Echota with Cherokee ► 1836: Creeks ► 1837: Chickasaw ► 1838: Trail of Tears

31. Summary  by 1839: ► All important Indian societies moved west ► 100 mill acres of land ceded ► received $68 mill ► 32 mill acres of less usable land in exchange

32. Westward Expansion—the Far West  Government policy ► 1851: each tribe assigned its own treaty instead of “One Big Reservation” idea ► allowed government to take most desirable land and separate Indians physically and politically

33. Resistance  Continual fighting from 1850s-1880s  treaties of 1867=temporary peace  new settlers moved into lands guaranteed to tribes in early 1870s  federal government stopped recognizing tribes as independent entities  would no longer negotiate with chiefs

34. Indian Wars End ► Fierce fighting through Civil War ► 1874-1886: Geronimo fought from bases in Mexico and Arizona ► dwindling troops as people died or gave up ► surrendered in 1886=official end of fighting betweens whites and Indians

35. As Citizens

36. Constitution ► Addressed Native Americans:  excluded “native americans not taxed” from pop count for representation  gave Congress power to negotiate treaties with tribes  Art. VI kept all treaties under Articles of Confederation valid  legal standing very unclear—big issue as time went on

37. In the Courts  Marshall made decisions that helped to clarify political status of Native Americans

38. Johnson v. McIntosh (1823) ► leaders of Illinois and Pinakeshaw tribes sold land to white settlers (Johnson) ► then ceded land to US government ► Government issued homesteads to new white settlers (McIntosh) ► Marshall favored government ► Only government could buy or take land from Native Americans

39. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1829) ► GA passed a law abolishing Cherokee legislature and courts ► Marshall refused to hear case: Cherokee not a foreign nation ► “Trust Relationship”= Tribes: Government :: ward :guardian

40. Worcester v. Georgia (1832) ► GA passed law requiring any citizen wanting to enter Cherokee territory to get permission from governor ► 2 missionaries sued claiming violation of federal power to regulate trade ► Marshall invalidated GA law ► Tribes were sovereign entities like GA, and so they had boundaries in which “their authority is exclusive”

41. The Dawes Severalty Act – 1887  gradual elimination of tribal ownership of land  160 to head of family, 80 to a single adult or orphan, 40 acres to each dependent child  force assimilation to white model of society  tribal land reduced from 155 mil acres to 48 mil acres by 1934

42. Citizenship Granted ► Inconsistent citizenship:  by marrying white men  through military service  by allotments ► 1924: Indian Citizenship Act

43. New Deal for Indians 1933-1945 ► 1933: John Collier commissioner of Indian Affairs  created Indian Emergency Conservation Program (IECP) ► employed 85,000 Nat Am  required other organizations to hire Native Americans too

44. 1934: Indian Reorganization Act ► ended Dawes ► provided funds for tribes to buy new land ► recognized tribal constitutions ► federal grants to provide social services ► prohibitions on language, religion and custom lifted

45. Termination Era 1950s "In return [for being terminated], individual tribal members received a check for the value of their land…The check did not compensate for the loss of federal benefits or the new tax burdens. It could not pay for the loss of tribal governmental authority, or compensate for the discrimination that followed in the state agencies and courts. Perhaps most tragic of all, the check could not possibly pay for the psychological costs of "not being an Indian any more." ► Reprinted from Federal Indian Law, Getches and Wilkinson, 2nd Ed., 1998, with permission of the West Group. ► Reprinted from Federal Indian Law, Getches and Wilkinson, 2nd Ed., 1998, with permission of the West Group. ► Attempt to reduce government involvement ► Return to assimilation ► Reduced responsibilities of BIA ► Tried to repay tribes for lands taken illegally ► HCR 108 (1953): Official end of trust relationship

46. Self-Determination 1970-present ► Native American tribes are semi-autonomous ► Independent governments ► federal government in role of protector to allow for self- government