1. Chapter 26: Political experiments of the 1920’s

2. Post-Settlement Political and Economic Factors Experimental regimes abounded Experimental regimes abounded –The Soviets created an authoritarian state. –In German and Austro-Hungarian territory parliamentary democracies sprung up.

3. Demands for Revision of the Paris Settlement Objections from Nationalist sentiments. Objections from Nationalist sentiments. The victors felt that the terms of the settlement were not adequately enforced. The victors felt that the terms of the settlement were not adequately enforced.

4. Postwar Economic Woes The war had damaged the economies of Europe’s old states. The war had damaged the economies of Europe’s old states. –The loss of so many people was also a loss of producers and consumers. –Every country had war debts, and no way to repay it. –Losers also had to pay reparations. –Industrial infrastructure had been destroyed The new states had nothing to begin with. The new states had nothing to begin with. –New borders separated factories from the resources they used. –Railway systems were now split between multiple nations. The US ceased to be dependent on European production The US ceased to be dependent on European production

5. New Relationship between Government and Labor Unionism had gained new prominence during the war. Unionism had gained new prominence during the war. –Wages were up from pre-war levels. –Collective bargaining and union recognition were now permanent features of the labor market.

6. The Beginning of the Soviet Project The Bolsheviks had consolidated power. The Bolsheviks had consolidated power. –Party membership did not exceeded 1% of the population –Some opposition still remained. –They viewed their revolution as internationally significant

7. War Communism Leon Trotsky (1879-1940) organized the Red Army to suppress both internal and foreign opposition. Leon Trotsky (1879-1940) organized the Red Army to suppress both internal and foreign opposition. –White Russian opposition could not get properly organized. The nation was run by Lenin from the top, undemocratically. The nation was run by Lenin from the top, undemocratically. –The government ran the banks, the transport system and heavy industry. –All opposition was repressed. War Communism generated opposition. War Communism generated opposition. –Peasants resisted the requisition of grain –Strikes in 1920 and 1921 –Baltic fleet mutiny in March 1921.

8. Leon Trotsky

9. The New Economic Plan (NEP) Outlined by Lenin in March 1921 Outlined by Lenin in March 1921 –Private industry would be tolerated except for in:  Banking  Heavy Industry  Transportation  International Commerce –Peasant farming for profit was legalized. –The countryside stabilized.

10. Lenin

11. The Stalin/Trotsky Rivalry After Lenin’s stroke in 1922 and his subsequent death in 1924, a power vacuum was left. After Lenin’s stroke in 1922 and his subsequent death in 1924, a power vacuum was left. Two factions emerged Two factions emerged –Trotsky Faction –Joseph Stalin (1879-1953), general secretary of the party, Faction. Lenin had criticized both before his death, but especially Stalin. Lenin had criticized both before his death, but especially Stalin.

12. Stalin vs. Trotsky

13. Trotsky’s Position Urged rapid industrialization financed by expropriation of farm production. Urged rapid industrialization financed by expropriation of farm production. Collectivization of agriculture Collectivization of agriculture The Soviet Union should encourage worldwide Socialist revolution The Soviet Union should encourage worldwide Socialist revolution

14. Stalin’s Rise His position of general secretary allowed him to amass bureaucratic and administrative power. His position of general secretary allowed him to amass bureaucratic and administrative power. Manipulated intraparty rivalries Manipulated intraparty rivalries –Backed Nikolai Bukharin (1888-1938) in his battle with Trotsky over rapid industrialization –Also opposed Trotsky’s position on worldwide revolution He was thus able to eventually have Trotsky humiliated and exiled by 1929. He was thus able to eventually have Trotsky humiliated and exiled by 1929.

15. The Third International Also called the Comintern, the Third International of the European Socialist Movement was designed by Lenin to promote the Bolshevik style of Socialism in Europe. Also called the Comintern, the Third International of the European Socialist Movement was designed by Lenin to promote the Bolshevik style of Socialism in Europe. –1920-21 conditions were imposed on any socialist party that wanted to join. –Every major European party was split on whether to accept these policies. –These splits helped lead to the rise of facism.

16. Facism in Italy Facist Governments were anti-Democratic, Anti-Marxist, anti-Parlimentary and frequently anti-Semitic. Facist Governments were anti-Democratic, Anti-Marxist, anti-Parlimentary and frequently anti-Semitic. –Rejected Liberalism. –Dictatorial Founded in Italy Benito Mussolini (1883- 1945) Founded in Italy Benito Mussolini (1883- 1945)

17. Benito Mussolini

18. The Rise of Mussolini Italian Fasci Di Combattimento, “Bands of Combat,” founded in 1919 in Milan. Italian Fasci Di Combattimento, “Bands of Combat,” founded in 1919 in Milan. –Mostly Italian war veterans who rejected Versailles. Lead by Mussolini Lead by Mussolini –A former socialist –Broke with socialists in 1914, in order to support joining the war on the side of the Allies. –Nationalism replaced socialism in his personal pantheon. Took advantage of postwar chaos. Took advantage of postwar chaos.

19. Early Fascist Organization Mussolini initially supported factory occupation and land seizures. Mussolini initially supported factory occupation and land seizures. He later came to realize that Italians were more interested in order than abstract ideas of justice. He later came to realize that Italians were more interested in order than abstract ideas of justice. –Formed local squads of terrorists to go after socialists and other perceived malcontents –Law enforcement ignored them. In 1921 Mussolini and 34 Fascists were elected to the government. In 1921 Mussolini and 34 Fascists were elected to the government. The Black Shirt March The Black Shirt March –In October 1922, the Fascists marched on Rome. –The Cabinet resigned in protest. On November 23, 1922 the king and Parliament granted Mussolini dictatorial power for one year. On November 23, 1922 the king and Parliament granted Mussolini dictatorial power for one year.

20. Italian Fascism

21. A Definition of Fascism Fascism is the totalitarian philosophy of government that glorifies the state and nation and assigns to the state control over every aspect of national life. The State not only is authority which governs and molds individual will with laws and values of spiritual life, but it is also power which makes its will prevail abroad….For the Fascist, everything is within the State and…neither individuals nor groups are outside the State...For Fascism, the State is an absolute, before which individuals or groups are only relative….Liberalism denied the State in the name of the individual; Fascism reasserts the rights of the State as expressing the real essence of the individual. -- Enciclopedia Italiana, 1932

22. The Fasces Symbol Comes from the Latin word fasces. In ancient Rome, the fasces were cylindrical bundles of wooden rods, tied tightly together around an axe. They symbolize unity and power.

23. The Characteristics of Fascism

24. 1. Ideology A form of extreme right-wing ideology. It celebrates the nation or the race as an organic community transcending all other loyalties. Powerful and continuing nationalism.  Constant use of patriotic mottos, slogans, symbols, songs, etc.  Flags are seen everywhere.

25. 2. Subordination to the State Fascism seeks forcibly to subordinate ALL aspects of society to its vision of organic community [usually through a totalitarian state]. It uses organized violence to suppress opposition.  Glorification of force.  Accepts the tenets of Social Darwinism.  Is anti-democratic.

26. 3. Cult of State Worship The individual had no significance except as a member of the state. The fascists were taught:  Credere! [to believe]  Obbedire! [to obey]  Combattere! [to fight]

27. 4. The Myth of Rebirth The “phoenix rising up from the ashes.” Emphasis on a national or racial rebirth after a period of decline or destruction. Calls for a “spiritual revolution” against signs of moral decay [such as individualism and materialism]. Seeks to purge “alien” forces and groups that threaten the organic community.

28. 5. Militarism

29. 6. Rampant Sexism Almost exclusively male-dominated. Traditional gender roles are made more rigid. Divorce, abortion & homosexuality are suppressed. The state is represented as the ultimate guardian of the family institution.

30. 7. Identification of Enemies or Scapegoats as a Unifying Cause The people are rallied into a unifying patriotic frenzy over the need to eliminate a perceived common threat or foe. This foe could be racial, ethnic, a religious minority, liberals, communists, etc.

31. 8. Disdain for the Recognition of Human Rights Because of the fear of enemies and the need for security, the people are persuaded that human rights can be ignored out of “need.” People look the other way or even approve of torture, summary executions, long incarcerations of prisoners, assassinations, etc.

32. Jews Are the Enemy!

33. 9. Religion & Government Are Intertwined Fascist governments tend to use the most common religion in the nation as a tool to manipulate public opinion. They meld religious rhetoric, symbolism, mythology, etc., into their policies [appears to give a religious imprimatur to government policies!]

34. 10. Disdain for Intellectuals & for the Arts Open hostility to higher education and academia is promoted. Professors and other academics are censored or arrested. Free expression in the arts and letters is openly attacked.

35. 11. Rampant Cronyism & Corruption Fascist regimes are almost always governed by groups of friends and associates who appoint each to government positions. This group uses governmental power and authority to protect their friends from accountability. National resources and even treasures can be appropriated or even outright stolen by government leaders.

36. 12. Fraudulent Elections Sometimes elections are a complete sham. Other times, elections are manipulated by smear campaigns against or even assassination of opposition candidates. The use of legislation to control who can vote.

37. 13. Controlled Mass Media

38. 14. Labor Power is Suppressed; Corporate Power is Protected Because the organizing power of labor is the only real threat to a fascist government, labor unions are suppressed or independent unions are eliminated. The industrial and business aristocracy of a fascist state often are the ones who put the government leaders into power.  This creates a mutually beneficial business/government relationship and power elite!

39. The Rise of Mussolini

40. Immediate Post-WW I Italy Fascism, to some extent, was a product of a general feeling of anxiety and fear among the middle class of post-war Italy:  Fears regarding the survival of capitalism.  Economic depression.  The rise of a militant left.  A feeling of national shame and humiliation at Italy’s poor treatment by the other Entente leaders after World War I [especially at Versailles].

41. Immediate Post-WW I Italy In 1920 the Italian Socialist Party organized militant strikes in Turin and other northern Italian industrial cities.  Economic chaos in the north could spread to the rest of Italy! Hundreds of new fascist groups developed throughout Italy in response  “Black Shirts” [paramilitary squadriste] violently attacked the Socialists.

42. Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) Originally a Marxist.  By 1909 he was convinced that a national rather than an international revolution was necessary.  Edited the Italian Socialist Party newspaper. Avanti! [Forward!].

43. Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) He became an interventionist.  Founded the newspaper Il Popolo d’Italia [The People of Italy] to encourage Italy to join the war.

44. Benito Mussolini (1883-1945)  His editorial positions:  The war was a turning point for Italy.  The returning combat soldiers would form a new elite and bring about a new type of state.  This new elite would transform Italian politics and society!

45. Mussolini Comes to Power 1921 election  Fascists included in the political coalition bloc of P. M. Giovanni Giolitti’s government [they win 35 seats]. October, 1922  Mussolini threatened a coup d’etat.  “March on Rome”  25,000 Black Shirts staged demonstrations throughout the capital.

46. Mussolini Forms a Government King Victor Emmanuel III refused to sign a law giving the Italian military the ability to quell the chaos and arrest the Fascists. He invited Mussolini to join a coalition government with Giolitti. 1925  Mussolini seized dictatorial powers during a political crisis [Black Shirts murdered one of Mussolini’s chief Socialist critics, Giacomo Matteotti].

47. The Fascists Consolidate Power (1925-1931) New laws passed to create the legal basis for Italy’s official transformation into a single-party state:  Independent political parties & trade unions were abolished.  Freedom of the press was curbed.  Special courts created to persecute any political opposition.  National police force created [with a secret police component].

48. State “Corporatism” 1926  The National Council of Corporations created.  Guilds of employers and employees established to manage the 22 sectors of the economy.  Supported by small capitalists, low-level bureaucrats, and the middle class  They all felt threatened by the rise of Socialist power!  The goal  harmonize the interests of workers, managers and the state by abolishing class warfare.  The reality  This system retarded technological progress and destroyed workers’ rights.

49. The Lateran Accords (1929) This settled a long-running dispute over the Catholic Church’s role in Italian politics  this was the 1 st time in Italian history that the Church and the government agreed on their respective roles! Terms:  The Papacy was granted temporal sovereignty over Vatican City.  The Papacy was guaranteed the free exercise of Roman Catholicism as the sole state religion throughout Italy.  The Papacy accepted Italian sovereignty over the former Papal States.

50. The Lateran Treaty

51. Italian Fascist Propaganda

52. The Fascist Family The Fascists encouraged the development of large families.

53. Education The first sentence pronounced by children at school was Let us salute the flag in the Roman fashion; hail to Italy; hail to Mussolini. Textbooks emphasized:  The glorious pat of the ancient Romans.  The limitations imposed upon the present inhabitants by geography and the West.  The imperial destiny that awaited Italy’s future development.

54. Emphasis on Physical Fitness

55. Anti-Semitism 50,000 Jews lived in Italy in the 1930s. Mussolini did NOT implement an extermination program in Italy.  75% of Italian Jews survived World War II.  8,000 died in German extermination camps. 1938  anti-Semitic laws passed  Manifesto degli Scienziati Razzisti [The Manifesto of the Racist Scientists].  Excluded foreign Jews [most of them were sent to German death camps].  Forbade all Jews from teaching.  Excluded Jews from serving in the government or in the military.

56. Gli Ebrei in Italia (1937) Provided the intellectual premise for the 1938 racial laws. Attacked Jews for:  Their alleged Zionist sympathies.  Their championing of degenerate avante- garde cultural expressions.  For their doubtful loyalty to the Fascist regime and its imperial claims.

57. Mussolini Was Hitler’s Role Model

58. Black Shirt March, 1922

59. The Fascists in Power Once in power, Mussolini moved cautiously Once in power, Mussolini moved cautiously –Changed election laws in 1924, so that the party which received the largest popular vote would have two thirds of the seats in parliament. –In the 1924 election, the Fascists won complete control of Parliament –By 1926 Mussolini was able to rule by decree Violence and terror continued Violence and terror continued –Late 1924 Giacomo Matteotti, a socialist leader, was murdered The Lateran Accord of 1929 made peace with the Vatecan The Lateran Accord of 1929 made peace with the Vatecan

60. France in the Postwar Years The French parliament was extremely conservative, opposing social reforms The French parliament was extremely conservative, opposing social reforms They initially accepted a role as the leading European power They initially accepted a role as the leading European power –Wanted to keep Germany weak by enforcing the treaty. –Made treaties with Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia, and Poland intended to contain German, but the alliance was weak. Attempts to enforce reparations Attempts to enforce reparations –In 1923 France occupied the Ruhr, as punishment for Germany’s defaulting on reparations. –The Germans paid, but Britain was alienated. Prosperity continued longer than anywhere else in Europe, until 1931. Prosperity continued longer than anywhere else in Europe, until 1931.

61. Great Britain After the War Economic Confusion Economic Confusion –The new government in 1919 was a Liberal-Conservative coalition. –The economy was depressed throughout the 1920s. –After 1922 government welfare was the normal means of income for thousands of British families First Labour Government First Labour Government –In 1923 Labour took over. Though Socialistic in outlook, they were non- revolutionary. –This was the beginning of the end for the Liberal party. The General Strike of 1926 The General Strike of 1926 –In 1924 Labour fell, and the Conservatives took power again. –In order to make their industry internationally competitive, British management attempted to cut wages. –In 1926 coal miners went on strike, followed by sympathetic workers in other industries. –In the end, they capitulated, but there was continued unrest. The Empire Crumbled The Empire Crumbled –In the 1920s India gained independence. –In 1921, most of Ireland gained independence.

62. Eastern Europe The fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire created a number of new states The fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire created a number of new states –The question became, could those who had previously been powerless rule competently? Economic and Ethnic Pressures Economic and Ethnic Pressures –All of the new states except Czechoslovakia depended on foreign loans –All of the new states except Czechoslovakia fell under authoritarian ethnic rule.

63. Poland Restored after 123 years of being ruled by its neighbors, nationalism was not sufficient to overcome regional differences. Restored after 123 years of being ruled by its neighbors, nationalism was not sufficient to overcome regional differences. In 1926 Marshal Josef Pilsudski (1867- 1935) carried out a coup. In 1926 Marshal Josef Pilsudski (1867- 1935) carried out a coup.

64. Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakia was fortunate enough to have a gifted leader in Thomas Masaryk. Czechoslovakia was fortunate enough to have a gifted leader in Thomas Masaryk. –The country worked well until the 30s, when German nationalists looked to Hitler, and he Annexed the Sudetenland while the world watched.

65. Hungary After the war there was a short lived Communist Republic After the war there was a short lived Communist Republic Following the fall of the Communists, an aristocratic government ruled Following the fall of the Communists, an aristocratic government ruled

66. Austria Throughout the 20s there was dissention in Parliament between the Social Democrats and the Christian Socialists Throughout the 20s there was dissention in Parliament between the Social Democrats and the Christian Socialists By the 30s the Christian Socialists had control, until the Nazis annexed Austria in 1938. By the 30s the Christian Socialists had control, until the Nazis annexed Austria in 1938.

67. Weimar Germany The Constitution, while refreshingly Liberal, was also fundamentally flawed, as it allowed small parties to gain seats easily. The Constitution, while refreshingly Liberal, was also fundamentally flawed, as it allowed small parties to gain seats easily. –The president was permitted to rule by decree in an emergency, permitting presidential dictatorship The republic also lacked broad popular support. The republic also lacked broad popular support. –It was viewed as the government that had saddled Germany with the humiliation of the Versailles treaty. –In the early 20s there were a number of violent uprisings, but they failed –There was massive inflation, due to the reparations imposed by the allies. –The invasion of the Ruhr caused the German people to resent the Weimar government even more.

68. Weimar Germany(cont.) Hitler and the Early Years of Nazism Hitler and the Early Years of Nazism –Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) made his first major appearance on the political scene in 1923. Along with an number of his followers he attempted a putsch. Though it failed, and Hitler was imprisoned, it made him a hero to many Germans. –Nazism was characterized by extreme nationalism, anti-Communism and anti- Semitism. The Stresemann Years The Stresemann Years –In order to repair inflation Chancellor Gustav Stresemann introduced a new German currency. –He also agreed to a new system of reparation payments in 1924, which helped to lower inflation. –In 1925, right after the French left the Ruhr, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg became president. Locarno Locarno –The 1925 Locarno Agreements helped to integrate Germany back into the European system. –However, its conciliatory outlook continued to alienate the German nationalist public

69. Conclusion At the close of the 1920s, Europe seemed to be finally breaking out of its postwar doldrums. At the close of the 1920s, Europe seemed to be finally breaking out of its postwar doldrums. However, the coming depression would bring its own set of challenges. However, the coming depression would bring its own set of challenges.