1. Chapter Where Have We Been Since the Last Exam 99

2. Figure Four types of goods 1 2 Rival in consumption? YesNo Excludable? Yes Private goods - Ice-cream cones - Clothing - Congested toll roads Natural monopolies - Fire protection - Cable TV - Uncongested toll roads No Common resources - Fish in the ocean - The environment - Congested nontoll roads Public goods - Tornado system - National defense - Uncongested nontoll roads Goods can be grouped into four categories according to two characteristics: (1) A good is excludable if people can be prevented from using it. (2) A good is rival in consumption if one person’s use of the good diminishes other people’s use of it. This diagram gives examples of goods in each category.

3. The Different Kinds of Goods Types of goods – Private goods Excludable & Rival in consumption – Public goods Not excludable & Not rival in consumption – Common resources Rival in consumption & Not excludable – Natural monopoly Excludable & Not rival in consumption 3

4. What Can Go Wrong? Market Failure Private Goods – With no externalities – Too little competition Too few suppliers – Monopoly or a Cartel » Set price above competitive market price » Provide to little of the good (MV > MC) – Government Intervention Regulation Merger regulation/Divestiture 4

5. What do we do? Private Goods Regulation – Sherman Anti-trust Act Punish actual anti-competitive behaviour Prohibit potential collusive behavior – Clayton/Putman 5

6. The Different Kinds of Goods Public goods & Common resources – Not excludable – People cannot be prevented from using them – No price attached to it – Positive externalities – Negative externalities 6

7. Public Goods The free-rider problem – Free rider – Person who receives the benefit of a good but avoids paying for it – Public goods – not excludable Free-rider problem prevents the private market from supplying the goods Government - can remedy the problem – If total benefits of a public good > its costs – Provide the public good – Pay for it with tax revenue – Make everyone better off 7

8. Public Goods Some important public goods – National defense Very expensive public good – Basic research General knowledge – Fighting poverty Welfare system Food stamps 8

9. Lighthouses – Mark specific locations so that passing ships can avoid treacherous waters Benefit - to the ship captain – Not excludable, not rival in consumption Incentive – free ride without paying – Most - operated by the government In some cases – Lighthouses - closer to private goods Coast of England, 19th century – Lighthouses – privately owned and operated – The owner - charged the owner of the nearby port Are lighthouses public goods? 9

10. Decide whether something is a public good – Determine who the beneficiaries are – Determine whether the beneficiaries can be excluded from using the good A free-rider problem – When the number of beneficiaries is large – Exclusion of any one of them is impossible Are lighthouses public goods? 10

11. Public Goods The difficult job of cost–benefit analysis – Government Decide what public goods to provide In what quantities – Cost–benefit analysis Compare the costs and benefits to society of providing a public good Doesn’t have any price signals to observe Government findings on the costs and benefits – Rough approximations at best 11

12. Cost: $10,000 – new traffic light Benefit: increased safety – Risk of a fatal traffic accident Drops from 1.6% to 1.1 % Obstacle – Measure costs and benefits in the same units Put a dollar value on a human life – Priceless = infinite dollar value How much is a life worth? 12

13. Put a dollar value on a human life – Implicit dollar value Courts - award damages in wrongful-death suits – Ignores other opportunity costs of losing one’s life Risks - people are voluntarily willing to take – Value of human life = $10 million Cost-benefit analysis Traffic light – Reduces risk of fatality by 0.5 percentage points Expected benefit = 0.005 × $10 million = $50,000 Cost ($10,000) < Benefit ($50,000) Approve the traffic light How much is a life worth? 13

14. Common Resources Common resources – Not excludable – Rival in consumption The tragedy of the commons – Parable - why common resources are used more than desirable From society’s standpoint – Social and private incentives differ – Arises because of a negative externality 14

15. Common Resources The tragedy of the commons – Negative externality One person uses a common resource – Diminishes other people’s enjoyment of it Common resources tend to be used excessively – Government - can solve the problem Regulation or taxes – Reduce consumption of the common resource Turn the common resource into a private good 15

16. Common Resources Some important common resources – Clean air and water – Congested roads – Fish, whales, and other wildlife 16

17. Species of animals – Commercial value - threatened with extinction Buffalo – North America – Hunting - 19 th century Elephants – African countries – Hunting – today The cow – Commercial value – Species - continue to thrive Why the cow is not extinct 17

18. Elephant - common resource – No owners – Poachers - numerous Strong incentive to kill them Slight incentive to preserve them Cows - private good – Ranches - privately owned – Ranchers Great effort to maintain the cattle population on his ranch Reaps the benefit Why the cow is not extinct 18

19. Government intervention – help elephant population – Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda Illegal to kill elephants; Illegal to sell ivory Hard to enforce Elephant population – still diminishing – Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, and Zimbabwe Elephants – private good Allow people to kill elephants – Only those on their own property Landowners - incentive to preserve elephants Elephant population – started to rise Why the cow is not extinct 19