1. Module 16.1 Perceiving Others

2. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-2 Module 16.1 Preview Questions What is social perception? What are the major influences on first impressions, and why do first impressions often become lasting impressions? What role do cognitive biases play in the judgments we make about the causes of behavior?

3. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-3 Module 16.1 Preview Questions (Cont’d) What are attitudes and how are they acquired? How are attitudes related to behavior? What is cognitive dissonance theory? How do persuasive appeals lead to attitude change?

4. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-4 Social Psychology Studies how our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by our social interactions with others Social perception is the process by which we come to form an understanding of our social environment. Based on observations of others, personal experiences, and information we received

5. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-5 Impression Formation The process by which we form an opinion or impression of another person First impressions: Formed quickly Tend to be long-lasting Difficult to change Impressions formed affect how we relate to those people.

6. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-6 Impression Formation (Cont’d) Influenced by: Personal disclosure Social schemas Stereotypes Impressions can become self-fulfilling prophecies.

7. 12.1 12.212.3 © AP Images/Chiaki Tsukumo

9. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-9 Attributions Personal explanations about the causes of behaviors or events Two types of attributions: Dispositional Causes: Internal factors, such as characteristics or traits of the person Situational Causes: External or environmental factors

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11. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-11 Cognitive Biases in Attribution Fundamental attribution error Tendency to attribute behavior to internal factors, ignoring situational influences.

12. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-12 Cognitive Biases in Attribution Actor-observer effect Attribute one’s own behavior to external causes Attribute others’ behavior to internal causes

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15. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-15 Attitudes A positive or negative evaluation of persons, objects, or issues Conceptualized as consisting of three components: Cognitions Emotions Behaviors

16. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-16 Figure 16.1: Attitudes

17. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-17 Sources of Attitudes Our social environment Heredity, through its influence on our: Intelligence Temperament Personality traits

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19. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-19 Cognitive Dissonance Theory What happens when actions deviate from attitudes? Inconsistencies between attitudes and behavior leads to a state of dissonance. Dissonance motivates one to change attitude or behavior to make them compatible.

20. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-20 Figure 16.2: Ways of Reducing Cognitive Dissonance

21. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-21 Figure 16.3: Elaboration Likelihood Model

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25. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-25 Figure 16.4: Getting Your Message Across: Factors in Persuasive Appeals

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28. Module 14.2 Relating to Others

29. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-29 Determinants of Attraction Similarity Physical attractiveness: Major determinant of initial attraction “What is beautiful is good” stereotype Common view of what is beautiful Matching hypothesis

30. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-30 Determinants of Attraction Proximity Provides more chances for interacting Reciprocity Liking others who like us back

31. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-31 Figure 14.5: Sternberg’s Triangular Model of Love

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33. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-33 Helping Behavior Tragedy of Kitty Genovese But how explain the heroic efforts on 9/11? Helping is a form of prosocial behavior. Behavior that is beneficial to others Two types of motives underlie helping behavior: Altruistic motives Self-centered motives

34. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-34 Influences on Helping Situational ambiguity Perceived cost Diffusion of responsibility Similarity Facial features Mood and gender Attributions of the cause of need Social norms

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36. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-36 Prejudice Preconceived attitude, formed without critical thought or evaluation of the facts Usually an unfavorable attitude Components: Cognitive: Biased beliefs about other groups Emotions: Dislike toward members of other groups Behavior: Discrimination or biased/unfair treatment of people based on group membership

37. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-37 How Does Prejudice Develop? Outgrowth of negative stereotypes Stereotypes are learned or acquired. Direct experience Cognitive biases Out-group negativism In-group favoritism Out-group homogeneity

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39. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-39 Prejudice: Individual Differences Learning experiences Cognitive style Universalist orientation = less prejudiced Authoritarian personality style Rigidity, obedience and respect for authority

40. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-40 Effects of Stereotyping and Prejudice Racism is the negative bias held toward members of other racial groups. Significant source of environmental stress for many African Americans Negative effects of stereotyping: Lowered expectations Beliefs an become internalized Can become a self-fulfilling prophecy

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43. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-43 Reducing Prejudice: Allport’s Contact Hypothesis Reduce prejudice by bringing groups into close contact Facilitated by: Social and institutional support Acquaintance potential Equal status Intergroup cooperation

44. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-44 Reducing Prejudice: Individual Efforts Teach empathy Avoid stereotypical thinking Reject negative thoughts Rehearse positive images Diversity education

45. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-45 Is Human Aggression Instinctual? Fighting instinct as basic survival mechanism Aggression among males used to: Establish dominance Defend territory Claim food, mates, resources Human aggression may be too complex to be based on instinct.

46. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-46 Influences on Aggression Biological Influences Violent behavior and abnormal brain circuitry Male sex hormone, testosterone Inherited tendencies Learning Influences Observational learning, modeling, and imitation Reinforcement of aggression

47. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-47 Influences on Aggression (Cont’d) Sociocultural Influences Violence occurs within social contexts Violence as a social influence tactic Alcohol use Strongly linked to aggressive behavior Loosens inhibitions and restraints on impulsive behaviors Impairs cognitions, sensitivity, perception

48. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14-48 Influences on Aggression (Cont’d) Emotional Influences Frustration, anger may trigger aggression Environmental Influences Higher temperatures, more aggression