1. Recursion James Wright St Peter’s Secondary School 733 Parkhill Road West Peterborough,Ontario K9J-8M4 jwrightnisha@hotmail.com

2. Recursion Sometimes, solutions are stated in terms of a solution from another problem. In order to solve the value of the primary solution, a value from the secondary solution must be calculated and plugged into the primary problem. This concept can be extended to include many levels of subsets.

3. How old am I? I don’t know my age but I know that I am 6 years younger than red. I don’t know my age but I know that I am 3 years older than blue. I don’t know my age but I know that I am 4 years older than yellow. I don’t know my age but I know that I am 1 year younger than brown. I am 25 years old If brown is 25, I must be 24. If yellow is 24, I must be 28. If blue is 28, I must be 31. If brown is 31, I must be 25.

4. A method is said to be recursive if it calls itself, either directly or indirectly. That is, the method is used in its own definition. Recursion can often be used to solve complex problems by reducing them to simpler problems of the same type. Put another way, a recursive method solves a problem by returning increasingly simplified versions of the original problem until the simplest or base case is reached. When the base value is reached, it is plugged in the 2 nd last method call. This allows another value to be calculated which in turn can be used to solve for the 3 rd last method call and so on until the original method call’s value is calculated. A classic example of a recursive solution to a problem can be demonstrated using factorials. The factorial of 5 is calculated as follows 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 *1 = 120 The mathematical shorthand for writing the factorial of a number is to use the ! sign. For example the factorial of 5 could be written 5!

5. 5! Is equal to 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1 5! Is also equal to 5 * 4! Extending this pattern we can create the following chart of factorials. 5! = 5 * 4! 4! = 4 * 3! 3! = 3 * 2! 2! = 2 * 1! 1! = 1 * 0! Each of the preceding factorials can be rewritten in terms of another number multiplied by a factorial. This pattern works until we come to 0. 0! Has a value of 1. We say 0! or 1 is the base case. This value can not be broken down any further or expressed as another factorial. The following chart demonstrates the recursive flow of values from 5 down to the base case and back to the original method call.

6. Diagram taken from Deitel & Deitels’s, Java: How to Program 5! 5 * 4! 4 * 3! 3 * 2! 2 * 1! 1 (a) Procession of recursive calls.(b) Values returned from each recursive call. 5! 5 * 4! 4 * 3! 3 * 2! 2 * 1! 1 Final value = 120 4! = 4 * 6 = 24 is returned 5! = 5 * 24 = 120 is returned 3! = 3 * 2 = 6 is returned 2! = 2 * 1 = 2 is returned 1 returned

7. Here is a code snippet demonstrating a recursive method ‘factorial’ which calculates 5!

8. static public int factorial(int number) { if(number <= 1) return 1; else return number * factorial(number - 1); } The method begins with a value of 5 being passed as the argument variable 5. Since 5 <= 1, the program flow skips to the next line and returns 5 * factorial (4). The value of 5 * factorial 4 is unknown, it is left in ‘limbo’ to be solved later. The flow of the program now concerns itself with factorial(4). Since 4 <= 1, the program flow skips to the next line and returns 4 * factorial (3). This process repeats itself until the variable number is equal to 1. Only when the value of number is equal to one does the method start returning a ‘solid’ value which can then start solving for previous method calls.

9. What is my Factorial I don’t know the value of 5! But I know it is equal to 5 * 4! I am a base case with value 1 1! = 1 * 0! Which is equal to1 If brown is 1, I must be 2 * 1 = 2 I don’t know the value of 4! But I know it is equal to 4 * 3! I don’t know the value of 3! But I know it is equal to 3 * 2! I don’t know the value of 2! But I know it is equal to 2 * 1! If yellow is 2, I must be 3 * 2 = 6 If blue is 6, I must be 4 * 6 = 24 If red is 2, I must be 5 * 24 = 120

10. Using Recursion to Calculate Exponents Consider the exponent 2 4 It can be thought of as 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 This could also be written as 2 * 2 3 2 3 in turn could be wriiten as 2 * 2 2.... continuing the pattern to its logical conclusion 2 2 = 2 * 2 1 2 1 = 2 0 2 0 = 1 The base case in this example is point at which the exponent is 0. Any number to the expontent 0 has a value of 1. To solve an exponent recursively we take every exponent and rewite it as a base number multiplied by an exponent one less than the previous.

11. Level Initial 2 3 4 Base 2 4 =16 2 * 2 3 2 * 8 = 16 2 * 2 2 2 * 4 = 8 2 * 2 1 2 * 2 = 4 2 * 2 0 = 2 * 1 = 2

12. public class ExponentRecursion { public static void main(String args[]) { //The initial call to method power supplying two //arguments, 2 as the base and 4 as the exponent System.out.println( "The answer is " + power(2,4)); } static int power(int base, int exponent) { //check to see if base case hase been reached, exponent is 0 if(exponent < 1) return 1; else //return the value of 2 multiplied by a recursive call to //power with a continually diminishing value of exponent return base * power(base, exponent - 1); }

13. String Reversal Using Recursion In order to examine the next algorithm which rewites a given word backwards, we need to know the function of three methods within the String class. length() is method that simply returns the number of characters in a string as an integer. int x ; String word = “hello” x = word.length() In this case the value of x would be 5 public class StringLength { public static void main(String args[]) { String word = "hello"; int x; x = word.length(); System.out.println("The number of letters in the word are " + x); }

14. The String Method substring() This String method takes an integer as an argument and returns the portion of the word beginning at a particular index in the String. Remember that Strings are unique variables that are made up of an array of characters. In the word ‘hello’, the individual letters correspond to the following indices(plural of index) IndexLetter 0‘h’ 1‘e’ 2‘l’ 3‘l’ 4‘o’

15. Index012345 Word1hello Word2today Word3Canada Using the above strings, some examples of the method substring would be as follows: Word1.substring(1)‘ello’ Word1.substring(3)‘lo’ Word2.substring(2)‘day’ Word2.substring(3)‘ay’ Word3.substring(0)‘Canada’ Word3.substring(5)‘a’

16. The String Method charAt() This method takes an integer as an argument and returns the letter at that particular index. For example using the string variable word = “hello”, the output of word.charAt(0) would be ‘h’ word.charAt(4) would be ‘o’ This method can take a string literal rather than a variable if desired. “hello”.charAt(1) would output ‘e’ “Waterloo”.charAt(4) would output ‘r’

17. Back to Recursion… In this example we will take a given word and write it backwards. music cisum We will do this by using the string methods discussed previously within a recursive method we will call reverse. Our algorithm must address these issues: How long is the word? What is the base case of the recursion? How do we reduce the outputs of the method calls so that it eventually reaches the base case.

18. The answer to the first question can be answer by simply applying the length() method String word = “music” Int x = word.length()//the value of x would be 5 In order to write a word backwords, we must establish what the final letter of the word is so that we make put it at the beginning. The final letter of the word can be discovered by trimming letters off the intitial word until there is a substring of only one character. Our base case will therefore be a substring with a length <= 1 The synatax would look something like this: If(word.length() <= 1 return word;

19. By grabbing a substring at index one we create a new copy of word that begins on the 2 nd letter of the initial word. By repeating this process until word.length = 1 we finally come to the last letter of the word Music usic sic ic c + charAt(0) which is M + charAt(0) which is u + charAt(0) which is s + charAt(0) which is i cisuM cisu cis ic

20. Once the base case is reached, the charAt(0) syntax adds the first letter of each substring. As the effect cascades back up, the effect is the letters are added in reverse order. public class StringReverse { public static void main(String args[]) { String word = "music"; System.out.println("The word reversed is " + reverse(word)); } static public String reverse(String word) { if(word.length() <= 1) return word; else return reverse(word.substring(1)) + (word.charAt(0)); }

21. 21 Recursion-Summary Notes All recursive definitions have to have a terminiating case If they didn't, there would be no way to terminate the recursive path Such a definition would cause infinite recursion This problem is similar to an infinite loop, but the non-terminating "loop" is part of the definition itself The non-recursive part is called the base case

22. 22 A method in Java can invoke itself; if set up that way, it is called a recursive method The code of a recursive method must be structured to handle both the base case and the recursive case Each call to the method sets up a new execution environment, with new parameters and local variables As always, when the method completes, control returns to the method that invoked it (which may be an earlier invocation of itself)