1. Proteins

2. PROTEINS

3. Amino acids contain an amino group, a carboxyl group, a carbon and a unique R group

4. Polar R groups make the amino acid hydrophilic Non-polar R groups make the amino acid hydrophobic

5. Ionic R groups make the amino acid hydrophilic

6. There are 20 different amino acids in polypeptides synthesized on ribosomes.

8. “Essential Amino Acids” are those that must be ingested in the diet (our body can’t make them) Chart for reading amino acidsAmino acid name – abb - Letter alanine - ala - A arginine - arg - R *** asparagine - asn - N aspartic acid - asp - D cysteine - cys - C glutamine - gln - Q glutamic acid - glu - E glycine - gly - G histidine - his - H *** isoleucine - ile - I leucine - leu - L lysine - lys - K methionine - met - M phenylalanine - phe - F proline - pro - P serine - ser - S threonine - thr - T tryptophan - trp - W tyrosine - tyr - Y valine - val - V

9. Understandings: Amino acids are linked together by condensation to form Polypeptides 02

10. Peptide Bonds join amino acids It’s a condensation reaction (meaning that H20 is released when the bond is formed). Two amino acids form a DI-PEPTIDE POLYPEPTIDES are formed from more than two amino acids bonded together

11. Condensation

12. Amino acids can be linked together in any sequence, giving a huge range of possible polypeptides

13. A protein may consist of a single polypeptide or more than one polypeptide linked together

14. The amino acid sequence determines the three - dimensional conformation of a protein.

15. Proteins have four levels of organization

16. Primary structure is the amino acid sequence

17. The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is coded for by DNA (genes) and is unique for each kind of protein.

18. The amino acid sequence determines how the polypeptide will fold into its 3D shape

19. Even a slight change in the amino acid sequence can cause the protein to malfunction For example, mis-formed hemoglobin causes sickle cell disease

21. Proteins have four levels of organization

22. Secondary structure results from hydrogen bonding between the oxygen of one amino acid and the hydrogen of another

24. The alpha helix is a coiled secondary structure due to a hydrogen bond every fourth amino acid

26. The beta pleated sheet is formed by hydrogen bonds between parallel parts of the protein

27. A single polypeptide may have portions with both types of secondary structure

28. Proteins have four levels of organization

30. Tertiary structure depends on the interactions among the R group side chains

32. Types of interactions Hydrophobic interactions: amino acids with nonpolar side chains cluster in the core of the protein, out of contact with water = charged = hydrophobic

34. Types of interactions Hydrogen bonds between polar side chains

36. Types of interactions Ionic bonds between positively and negatively charged side chains

38. Types of interactions Disulfide bridge (strong covalent bonds) between sulfur atoms in the amino acid cysteine

41. Quaternary structure results from interactions among separate polypeptide chains.

42. The folding of proteins is aided by other proteins, called chaperones Act as temporary braces as proteins fold into their final conformation Research into chaperones is a area of research in biology

43. Denaturation May be due to changes in: –pH –Temperature –Various chemicals

44. Denaturation results in disruption of the secondary, tertiary, or quaternary structure of the protein

45. Protein function is lost during denaturation, which is often irreversible

46. Living organisms synthesize many different proteins with a wide range of functions.

47. Folded proteins are placed into two general categories

48. Fibrous proteins have polypeptide chains organized in long fibers or sheets Water insoluble Very tough physically, may be stretchy

49. Functions of fibrous proteins Structural proteins function in support –Insects and spiders use silk fibers to make cocoons and webs –Collagen and elastin are used in animal tendons and ligaments –Keratin is the protein in hairs, horns and feathers

52. Functions of fibrous proteins Contractile proteins function in movement –Actin and myosin contract to create the cleavage furrow and to move muscles –Contractile proteins move cilia and flagella

53. Globular proteins have their chains folded into compact, rounded shapes Easily water soluble

54. Functions of globular proteins Storage proteins function in the storage of amino acids –Ovalbumin is the proteins in egg whites –Casein is the protein in milk, source of amino acids for baby mammals

56. Functions of globular proteins Transport proteins function in the movement of other substances Haemoglobin, the iron containing protein in blood, transport oxygen from lungs to other parts of the body (C 3032 H 4816 O 872 N 780 S 9 Fe 4 ) Membrane transport proteins such as channels for potassium and water

58. Functions of globular proteins Hormone proteins function as cellular messenger molecules that help maintain homeostasis Insulin: sends message “allow sugar into cells” (when blood glucose levels are high, cells will transport glucose into the cells for use or storage) Glucagon: sends message “we need more sugar in the blood” (when blood glucose is too low, cells will release glucose)

60. Functions of globular proteins Receptor proteins allow cells to respond to chemical stimuli –Growth factor receptors initiate the signal transduction pathway when a growth hormone attaches

61. Functions of globular proteins –Cholesterol receptors on the cell membrane allow LDL to be endocytosed into the cell

62. Functions of globular proteins Protective proteins function as protection against disease –Antibodies combat bacteria and viruses

63. Functions of globular proteins Enzymes speed up chemical reactions –Amylase and other digestive enzymes hydrolyze polymers in food –Catalase converts hydrogen peroxide H 2 O 2 into water and oxygen gas during cellular respiration

64. Active Genes Depends what type of cell they are Number of active genes varies by organism Common name of the organismApproximate number of genes in the organism’s genome Yeast (single-celled fungi)6,000 Drosophila (fruit fly)14,000 Rice plant51,000 Laboratory mouse30,000 Domestic dog19,000 Humans20-25,000 Number does not correlate to complexity

65. Every individual has a unique proteome.