1. The Epic of Gilgamesh (Volume A)

2. History Mesopotamia, 1900–250 B.C.E. Gilgamesh, priest-king of Uruk
written in cuneiform Ur
revised in Babylonian
Gilgamesh was likely a priest-king of the city-state of Uruk (in modern Iraq), known for building Uruk’s monumental city walls, still visible today. The text appears to be written for the benefit of kings of the third dynasty of Ur, who claimed descent from Gilgamesh and ruled six hundred years after the hero’s death. The cycle was revised in Babylonian by Sin-leqi-unninni in 1200 C.E. as adapted Sumerian poems that connect the stories into a single narrative.
The image description reads: Mace dedicated to the hero Gilgamesh (fifth king of Uruk, according to the Sumerian king list) by Urdun, civil servant of Lagash, Ur III.

3. Ur
Aerial image of Ur by the Royal Air Force (1927), the city-state in which kings of the third dynasty claimed descent from Gilgamesh (king of the city-state of Uruk).

4. Cuneiform wedge-shaped script 2100 B.C.E. clay tablets Sumerians
Gilgamesh was written on clay tablets, in cuneiform script, around 2100 B.C.E. In the Mediterranean and Near East, the earliest people to develop systems of writing were the ancient Sumerians and the Egyptians. Sumerian cuneiform—wedge-shaped markings inscribed on clay tablets—and Egyptian hieroglyphs both emerged in the latter half of the fourth millennium B.C.E. Sumer and Egypt were “scribal cultures,” meaning that writing was an occupation for paid professionals, not something everyone was expected to do. Literacy was not universal, and silent reading was almost unknown in the ancient world.
The image caption reads “Account of silver for the governor written in Sumerian Cuneiform on a clay tablet. From Shuruppak or Abu Salabikh, Iraq, 2500 BCE), in the Museum of London.

5. Elements of Epic Writing
length
content: historic, mythic
motifs
divine intervention
heroic flaw
orality and performance, writing
language
Epics are long poems that narrate important historical or cosmic events using elevated language, a multitude of actions, and large casts of protagonists both human and divine. Invocations to the gods, long speeches, and repetition (a mnemonic benefit for the performer) are prevalent characteristics. Unlike Greek epic, Gilgamesh has no strict metrical form and was not conceived as an oral work for performance, but it does parallel Greek works in motivic content: mourning the loss of a friend; the main protagonist possessing a “flaw” that both achieves greatness and leads to destruction of civilizations and cultures; experiencing adventures and returning home; performance of dangerous feats; heroes receiving counsel from gods that will decide their fate; and divine intervention and retribution. Characters adopt dialect and word choice that represents their character: Shamhat (a prostitute) speaks with eloquence, while Ishtar (a goddess) speaks like a prostitute, while Utanapishtim retains an archaic style of sage diction spoken prior to the Great Flood.

6. Binary Themes death and friendship nature and civilization
power and violence
travel and homecoming
love and sexuality
physical and intellectual journeys
Use of binaries and dialectical situations emphasize character emotions and create dynamic plots in epic works by allowing for parallels, contradictions, and new perspectives on repeated motifs.

7. Death and Friendship
The initial meeting between Gilgamesh and Enkidu is a great struggle, and though Enkidu loses, he manages to curb Gilgamesh’s tyrannical passions. This corrective and educative element is an important indication of the depth and value of their friendship. Similarly, though it is Gilgamesh who ignites the fury of Ishtar through his glib responses to her seductions, Enkidu is the one who must suffer the direct consequence of death. The sharing of another’s suffering is another important aspect of their friendship.
The image depicts a Cylinder Seal with Enkidu vanquishing the bull of heaven (1970–1670 B.C.E., early Old Babylon). The caption reads: At the center of the depicted scene is a handled jug on a stand. Flanking this motif on both sides is an animal contest motif with a bearded hero/bull-man in horned headdress battling a bull-man. At the edge of the scene is a cuneiform inscription in two registers at the top, and beneath it is a small four-legged animal with a long tail that curls upward. Housed at the Walters Art Museum.

8. Foil
The contrast between Enkidu and Gilgamesh establishes the dichotomy between human civilization and the wilderness that is a constant theme throughout the work. While Gilgamesh is first introduced as the builder of Uruk and its walls, and thus, in a sense, civilization, Enkidu is entirely a being of the wilds until he is seduced by Shamhat. Their wrestling match can be understood as representative of the struggle between man and his environment, and their eventual unity and friendship is indicative of an ideal harmony between the two.
The image depicts, as the caption states, two heroes pinning down a bearded foe while grabbing at his pronged headdress. The context may be related to the Gilgamesh epic and displays Gilgamesh and Enkidu in their fight with Humbaba. From the lower course of the exterior wall of the temple palace of King Kapara (10th–9th-century B.C.E., Neo-Hittite/ Hurritic), housed at the Walters Art Museum.

9. Dichotomies
“Go up, Ur-Shanabi, pace out the walls of Uruk. Study the foundation terrace and examine the brickwork. Is not its masonry of kiln-fired brick? And did not seven masters lay its foundations?” (Tablet X, 151)
At the conclusion of the epic, Gilgamesh is reconciled to his eventual death through his acknowledgment of the lasting achievement of having built Uruk, but it is important to recognize that this contentment is realized through his journey in the wilds of the earth. Furthermore, the fact that both Gilgamesh and Enkidu are lonely before they meet one another indicates that man alone, whether in nature or in the city, is not sufficient unto himself. This indicates the essential aspect of human nature that Aristotle identifies: man is a political animal.

10. Physical and Intellectual Journeys
“Shall I not die too? Am I not like Enkidu?” (Tablet IX, 135) “For whom, Ur-Shanabi, have my hands been toiling? For whom has my heart’s blood been poured out? For myself I have obtained no benefit, I have done a good deed for a reptile!” (Tablet X, 150)
Gilgamesh’s voyage through the mountain (Tablet 9) and across the waters of death (Tablet 10) is indicative of his intellectual movement to inquire about the very nature of things and is reminiscent of the presentation of the land of the dead found in other epic literature. Just as Homer’s Odysseus crosses the ocean to the land of the dead to speak with Tiresias, and Virgil’s Aeneas crosses the river Styx to speak with his father, so too Gilgamesh must journey through the darkness of the mountain and over the waters of death to gain the knowledge he seeks from Utanapishtim. In each of the cases the character seeks knowledge of some sort, and for Gilgamesh in particular, this is a different motivation from his earlier tyrannical and glory‑seeking days.

11. Gods
The gods in The Epic of Gilgamesh are, as is often the case in ancient literatures, immortal but anthropomorphized creatures with fickle minds and conflicting wills. It is notable that Gilgamesh and Enkidu receive the aid of Shamash and Ninsun in their struggle with Humbaba, but when Ishtar falls in love with Gilgamesh and tempts him, they receive no supernatural aid or advice.
The right image depicts Ashur, the “bull of heaven” that Ishtar unleashes against Gilgamesh and Enkidu after Gilgamesh criticizes her passion and cruelty toward her lovers. The left image depicts worship of the sun god, Shamash (limestone cylinder seal, Mesopotamia, housed in the Louvre).

12. Women
Much of what Gilgamesh accomplishes is due to women. Gilgamesh’s mother, the goddess Ninsun, is an important character for guiding Gilgamesh and assisting him in the interpretation of his dreams. Similarly, Enkidu is created by the goddess Aruru, and his path to civilization is directly through Shamhat. Ishtar’s role is the central pivot of the plot, for Gilgamesh’s rejection of her advances leads to Enkidu’s death and is thus the reason for his final quest for Utanapishtim. The goddess Siduri is important both for the assistance that she gives Gilgamesh and for the wisdom that she demonstrates, and Utanapishtim’s wife is similarly important for supporting Gilgamesh’s cause in front of her husband.
The image on the left depicts the goddess Ninsun, mother of Gilgamesh. From the Department of Oriental Antiquities, Richelieu, the Louvre (steatite, Neo-Sumerian Period). The right image depicts Ishtar, and its description reads: The “Queen of the Night” relief. Her bird feet and accompanying owls have suggested a connection with biblical Lilith. Old Babylonian (1800–1750 B.C.E., southern Iraq), British Museum, London.

13. Flood Myths
The various gods are similarly split in their opinions about the flood before it happened but are subsequently terrified by the force of the destructive weather. The god Enlil is likewise fickle, for though he planned the flood to destroy all of humanity, he quickly changes his mind when he finds Utanapishtim and his wife. It is helpful to compare the role of the gods here to those in other flood and tempest tales, such as Noah’s ark (Old Testament), the Deucalion flood (Greek myth), and the Tale of a Shipwrecked Sailor (Egyptian lore).
The image shows Tablet 11, the Flood Tablet (Neo-Assyrian).

14. Discussion Questions
Consider the etymology of the name “Gilgamesh” (“the old man is still a young man” OR “the offspring is a hero”). Is Gilgamesh’s name significant, despite the fact that he loses the plant that would return him to his youth? In what ways is it a fitting name despite his failure in the quest for immortality. How, in fact, has he actually accomplished immortality?
Students might consider the names of different heroes from ancient times—Odysseus, for example, means both “angry” and “cursed,” while “Beowulf” means “bear” (wolf of the bees). How does a hero’s name relate to his character and deeds in these works?

15. Discussion Questions
Throughout The Epic of Gilgamesh, many dreams occur, and often their meaning is unclear, or at least inscrutable for the characters who have them. Is there a general unity of the dreams? What is their purport? Do they come from the gods? Are they true? Are they good?
Students might consider dreams as one of several clairvoyant talents depicted in ancient works. How do dreams (as in this epic, or in Jacob’s dream in the Old Testament) differ from prophecy or reliance on a “seer” who visits gods’ shrines for knowledge (as Oedipus relies on Tiresias)?

16. This concludes the Lecture PowerPoint presentation for The Norton Anthology
of World Literature