1. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Chapter 9: Socioemotional Development in Early Childhood

2. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Emotional and Personality Development

3. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. During early childhood, children must discover who they are and: –They discover that conscience must govern exploration and self-observation, self-guidance, self-punishment. –Disappointment turns to guilt that lowers self-esteem. –Their parents can encourage motor play and fantasy. –Guilt exists in later life if motor activity is considered bad, questions are seen only as nuisances, and play is stupid.

4. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Self-understanding: substance and content of one’s self-conceptions, beginning with self-recognition. In early childhood, self-conception is usually in physical and material terms. As children age, there is increased: –Use of emotional language. –Learning about causes and consequences of feelings. –Ability to reflect on emotions. –Need to control and manage emotions to meet social standards.

5. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Self-conscious emotions are pride, guilt, shame, and embarrassment. Girls may show more shame, pride, anxiety, depression, and self-criticism. Moral development are feelings, thoughts, and behaviors about what should be done in interactions.

6. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Stages of Piaget’s moral development in children: –At ages 4-7, they see justice and rules as unchangeable. –Between ages 7 and 10 years, there is transition. –After 10 years of age: awareness that laws and rules are created by humans, judgment of behavior should be based on intentions and consequences. Views of moral theory: –Reinforcement, punishment, and imitation used to explain moral behavior by children. –Use of self-control overcomes prohibited impulses; patience and ability to delay gratification are learned.

7. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. –Psychoanalytic view: Oedipus complex forces same-sex identity. Parents’ standards internalized. Self-punitive guilt and other emotions force child to conform to social standards. Sex is a biological classification. Gender identity is a sense of being male or female. Gender role: expectations of being masculine and feminine; how one acts, feels, or thinks.

8. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Biological influences on behavior: –Chromosomes: XY are males, XX are females. –Sex hormones influence physical development. –Some research suggests genetics help determine play patterns, levels of aggression, career goals, and attitudes about gender roles. –Evolutionary biologists: differing sex roles in reproduction and urge for reproduction lead to natural selection behaviors.

9. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 to 3 years Rapid increase in emotional vocabulary Label simple emotions in self and others correctly; can talk about past, present, and future emotions Talk about causes and consequences of some emotions; identify emotions associated with certain situations Use emotion language in pretend play 4 to 5 years Increased ability to reflect verbally on emotions and consider more complex relations between emotions and situations Understand that same event may create different feelings in different people and that feelings may last long after the events that caused them Show growing awareness and ability to control and manage emotions in accordance with social standards Fig. 9.1 Some Characteristics of Young Children’s Emotion Language and Understanding

10. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Three theories about origins of gender roles: –Social role theory: gender differences due to culture. –Psychoanalytic theory: child becomes masculine or feminine even in absence of same-sex parent. –Cognitive theory: gender roles learned through observation, imitation, rewards, punishments. Ages 4 to 12 spend most free time exclusively in same-sex groups.

11. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. TheoryProcessesOutcomes Freud’s theory Sexual attraction to opposite-sex parent at 3–5 years of age; anxiety about this leads to identification with same-sex parent at 5–6 years of age Gender behavior like that of same-sex parent Social cognitive theory Rewards and punishment of desired/undesired gender behavior by adults and peers; observation and initiation of models’ behavior in children Gender behavior Fig. 9.2 A Comparison of the Psychoanalytic and Social Cognitive Views of Gender Development

12. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Parents influence and encourage gender behaviors and roles affecting peer relations. After 5, boys tend to associate in large groups, girls prefer groups of two or three. In same-sex play groups: –Boys tend to play rough-and-tough and competitively, and show conflict, ego displays, risk taking, and dominance. –Girls tend to be collaborative and engage in reciprocity behaviors.

13. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Mixed-sex group Same-sex group 50 6.5 years old4.5 years old Fig. 9.3 Developmental Changes in Percentage of Time Spent in Same-Sex and Mixed-Group Settings A tendency to play in same-sex groups increases between 4 and 6 years of age 25 75 Percentage of social playtime

14. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cognitive theories of gender development: –Cognitive development theory: gender typing occurs after children achieve gender constancy (as Kohlberg developed this: gender development depends on cognition). –Gender schema theory: gender gradually develops as child perceives what is gender-appropriate or inappropriate in their culture.

15. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. TheoryProcessesOutcome Cognitive develop- mental theory Development of gender constancy, especially around age 6 to 7, when conservation skills develop; after ability to consistently conceive of themselves as female or male, children often organize their world on the basis of gender. Cognitive readiness facilitates gender identity Gender schema theory Sociocultural emphasis on gender-based standards and stereotypes; children’s attention and behavior are guided by an internal motivation to conform to these, allowing children to interpret the world through gender-organized thoughts. Gender schemas reinforce gender behavior Fig. 9.4 The Development of Gender Behavior According to the Cognitive Developmental and Gender Schema Theories of Gender Development

16. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Families

17. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Parenting styles really affect development: –Interactions include punishment, child abuse, co-parenting, time and effort, and nurturing. Four parenting styles: –Authoritarian: highly controlling, little discussion (“My way, or else”). –Authoritative: limits placed, but also warm, nurturing, encouraging independence within those limits (“Let’s talk about it”). –Neglectful: uninvolved in child’s life. –Indulgent: involved, but with few demands or restraints.

18. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. AuthoritativeAuthoritarian IndulgentNeglectful Rejecting of and unresponsive to the child Accepting of and responsive to the child Undemanding, uncontrolling of child Demanding, controlling of child Fig. 9.6 Classification of Parenting Styles

19. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Authoritative parenting: –May be most effective type for variety of reasons. –It appears to transcend boundaries of ethnicity, SES, and family structure. Asian parents tend to “train” child. Latino parents tend to encourage family identity and self-development. African American parents tend to use physical punishment more than Whites. Corporal punishment was considered necessary for disciplining children—legal in all states.

20. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Some research shows use of corporal punishment is: –Associated with higher levels of immediate compliance and aggression in children. –Should be avoided in its intense forms. 1979 Swedish law forbids any type of physical punishment by parents. Cross-culturally, U.S. and Canada among those most favoring corporal punishment. Alternatives include use of time-outs, reasoning with child, positive reinforcement, loss of privileges.

21. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Corporate Punishment in Different Countries

22. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Child abuse or maltreatment refers to abuse and neglect. Four main types of child maltreatment (can overlap): –Physical abuse: physical injury. –Child neglect: physical/emotional/educational neglect or abandonment. –Sexual abuse: fondling, rape, incest, intercourse, sodomy, exploitation. –Emotional abuse: psychological abuse, verbal abuse, mental injury.

23. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Culture affects incidence of child abuse. Examine family interactions to understand abuse. Developmental consequences of abuse: –Poor emotional regulation. –Attachment problems. –Difficulty in school and peer relations. –Other psychological problems. –Child victims show increased violence in adult relationships.

24. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. In co-parenting, parental cooperation and warmth are linked to prosocial behaviors in children: –Good parenting is key factor. –Sibling relationships have a strong effect. Birth order: –Parents have higher expectations for firstborn. –Only child: often achievement-oriented, displays desirable personality traits. –By itself, is not a good predictor of behavior.

25. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Consider age spacing and sex between children, heredity, temperament, and parenting styles for predicting behavior. Children’s families more diverse today: –More mothers work outside home, more children in child care. –More children under 17 grow up in single-parent homes. –Both parents work outside home. –Divorced families. Some research finds negative effects if mother works during child’s 1st year.

26. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Fig. 9.7 5 0 15 20 25 30 10 Japan USA Sweden Canada Germany UK Australia France 17 15 14 13 11 6 23 11 Single-Parent Families in Different Countries Percentage of those families with children under 18

27. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Child from divorced family tends to show poorer adjustment, with greatest risk occurring in multiple divorces. Deciding divorce: weighing emotional stress on children versus loss of resources. The relationship between parents after divorce appears more negative for girls. Custodial- and noncustodial-father families may have greater impact on the sons’ lives. Joint custody may be better for all.

28. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Fig. 9.8 Divorce and Children’s Emotional Problems Of children from divorced families, 25% show serious emotional problems (75% did not), compared with only 10% of children from intact, never- divorced families Type of family 20 Divorced Intact, never divorced 10 0 30 Percentage of children showing serious emotional problems

29. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Gay Male and Lesbian Parents: –20% of lesbians and 10% of gay men are parents. –Their children may have born to their natural parents, now divorced (and with a gay partner), some through donor insemination and surrogates; some are adopted. –Though controversial, no evidence that children growing up with lesbian mothers or gay fathers are any different from those living with heterosexual parents.

30. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. There are cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic variations in parenting: –Authoritarian parenting is widespread in some cultures, including Chinese and Arab. –Most parents in the world are controlling, but warm. –Families are getting smaller in many countries. –Large and extended families are more common among minority groups than among Whites. –Single-parent families more common among Blacks and Latinos than among Whites.

31. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Peer Relations, Play, and Television

32. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Peers assist a child by: –Filling unique role in the culture. –Providing information. –Giving feedback and evaluation. Good peer relations necessary for social development. Extensive peer interaction during childhood in play. Piaget: play advances cognitive development. Vygotsky: play is excellent for cognitive development.

33. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Parten identifies 6 types of play: –Solitary, unoccupied, onlooker, parallel, associative, and cooperative play. Other types of play: –Sensorimotor play (early infancy). –Practice play (primarily in infancy). –Pretense/symbolic play (9–30 months). –Social play (peer interactions). Constructive play increases in preschool years. Games reinforce rules and competition; effects of TV can be very harmful.

34. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Fig. 9.9 0510152025 Percentage Italy Ireland Netherlands Canada United States Switzerland Norway Germany Sweden France Denmark Finland Spain Percentage of 9-Year-Old Children Who Report Watching More Than 5 Hours of TV per Weekday

35. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Amount and patterns of preschool TV viewing have an impact later on boys’ high school GPAs Educational TV Viewing and High School Grade Point Average for Boys Quartiles of child informative viewing at age 5 2.82 2.37 2.48 2.53 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.0 Mean high school overall GPA Fig. 9.11