1. The Layers of the Earth

2. The Four Layers The Earth is composed of four different layers. The crust is the layer that you live on, and it is the most widely studied and understood. The mantle is much hotter and has the ability to flow. The outer core and inner core are even hotter with pressures so great you would be squeezed into a ball smaller than a marble if you were able to go to the center of the Earth!

3. The Crust The Earth's Crust is like the skin of an apple. It is very thin in comparison to the other three layers. The crust is only about 3-5 miles (8 kilometers) thick under the oceans (oceanic crust) and about 25 miles (32 kilometers) thick under the continents (continental crust).

4. The Lithospheric Plates The crust of the Earth is broken into many pieces called plates. The plates "float" on the soft, semi-rigid asthenosphere.

5. The Asthenosphere The asthenosphere is the semi-rigid part of the middle mantle that flows like hot asphalt under a heavy weight.

6. The Lithosphere The crust and the upper layer of the mantle together make up a zone of rigid, brittle rock called the Lithosphere.

7. The Crust The crust is composed of two rocks. The continental crust is mostly granite. The oceanic crust is basalt. Basalt is much denser than the granite. Because of this the less dense continents ride on the denser oceanic plates.

8. The Mantle The Mantle is the largest layer of the Earth. The middle mantle is composed of very hot dense rock that flows like asphalt under a heavy weight. The movement of the middle mantle (asthenosphere) is the reason that the crustal plates of the Earth move.

9. Convection Currents The middle mantle "flows" because of convection currents. Convection currents are caused by the very hot material at the deepest part of the mantle rising, then cooling and sinking again --repeating this cycle over and over.

10. Convection Currents The next time you heat anything like soup or water in a pan you can watch the convection currents move in the liquid. When the convection currents flow in the asthenosphere they also move the crust. The crust gets a free ride with these currents, like the cork in this illustration.

11. The Outer Core The core of the Earth is like a ball of very hot metals. The outer core is so hot that the metals in it are all in the liquid state. The outer core is composed of the melted metals of nickel and iron.

12. The Inner Core The inner core of the Earth has temperatures and pressures so great that the metals are squeezed together and are not able to move about like a liquid, but are forced to vibrate in place like a solid.

13. Volcanoes Steam from the release of magma on to earth’s surface At least 1,500 active volcanoes on the planet 50 volcanic eruptions every year Mt. Pinatubo, 1990

14. Rock class determines landform type and eruption style: Cinder Cones - (basalt) mildly explosive Shield Volcanoes - (basalt) mildly explosive Composite Volcanoes - (andesite to dacite) mild to highly explosive Lava Domes - (dacite to ryholite) non-explosive Calderas - (andesite to ryholite) extremely violent and explosive

15. Cinder Cones - SP Crater, N. AZ Hawaii - Cinder Cone in Action Constructed from fountains of lava that rain around the vent. They can also issue low volatile flows, quietly oozing from the vent.

16. Shield Volcanoes - Basically really big, long duration cinder cones Olympus Mons Mauna Loa

17. Composite Volcanoes - Build up over time with alternating ash fallouts and lava flows, tendency to generate extremely violent events mixed with more moderate events. Mt. Fuji - classic composite cone

18. Composite Volcanoes - Mt. Saint Helens

19. Composite Volcanoes - Mt. Saint Helens

20. Composite Volcanoes - Mt. Pinatubo

21. Lava Domes Lava Domes - Highly viscous eruptions that build internally and externally Mt. Elden, N. AZ Lava Dome developing in Mount St. Helens

22. Calderas Calderas - Highly explosive eruptions that lead to structural collapse from an emptied magma chamber Crater Lake, 6 miles wide, 7,700 years ago - andesitic Long Valley Caldera, 15 miles wide, rhyolitic, 760,000 years old released 160 cubic miles of material

23. Dangers associated with eruptions: LaharsLahars a hot or cold mixture of water and rock fragments flowing (70 mph) down the slopes of a volcano and into river valleys Pyroclastic flowsPyroclastic flows fluidized masses of rock fragments and gases that move rapidly in response to gravity (can travel over 400 miles per hour, and reach temperatures approaching 2,000° F) Mt. Pelée, 1902 Mt. St. Helens, 1980

24. Dangers associated with eruptions: CO 2 Emissions - Release of CO 2 from buried magma into the atmosphere through faults, fissures, and lakes.CO 2 Emissions - Release of CO 2 from buried magma into the atmosphere through faults, fissures, and lakes. Mammoth, CA – 1,300 tons of sulphur dioxide released every day. “What might some positives be?”

25. Positives associated with Volcanism: Fertile Soils E nriched soils from mineral rich volcanic ashfalls Geothermal Energy Magma in the earth heats groundwater and the steam is used to power generators New Land Lava flows from continents into oceans can generate new land for development

26. Earthquakes Detected with Seismographs Rated based on the Richter Scale Evidence and Damage from an Earthquake 3.0 on the Richter Scale represents 31.5 times more energy than a 2.0, and 992 times more than a 1.0