1. Chapter 15 Science and Technology

2. Chapter Outline The Global Context: The Technological Revolution Sociological Theories of Science and Technology Technology and the Transformation of Society

3. Chapter Outline Societal Consequences of Science and Technology Strategies for Action: Controlling Science and Technology Understanding Science and Technology

4. Science and Technology Science The process of discovering, explaining, and predicting natural or social phenomena. Technology The application of science and mechanics to the solution of problems.

5. Mechanization Dominant in an agricultural society, the use of tools to accomplish tasks previously done by hand.

6. Automation Dominant in an industrial society, the replacement of human labor with machinery and equipment that is self- operating.

7. Cybernation Dominant in a postindustrial society; the use of machines to control other machines.

8. World is Getting Smaller The world was made a smaller place in the late 1800s by the Pony Express. Today, the iPhone, combining a number of technological feats, makes the world even smaller.

9. Global Internet Use from Home: May 2007 Average number of sessions per month35 Average of unique domains visited71 Average pages viewed per month1,509 Average pages viewed per session42 Average time online per month25 hrs, 48 min. Average time of surfing session54 minutes Average duration of a page viewed45 seconds Average online population338,250,261

10. Postmodernism and the Technological Fix Postmodernism is the view that rational thinking and science are limited in their ability to provide “truths.” Many people think social problems can be resolved through a technological fix: A social engineer might approach a water shortage by asking people to use less water. A technologist would develop new technologies to increase the water supply.

11. Structural-Functionalist Perspective Science fulfills the need for an assumed objective measure of truth. If society changes too rapidly, problems may emerge. Cultural lag is a condition in which the material part of culture changes faster than the nonmaterial part.

12. Conflict Perspective Technological advances are motivated by profit. Funding of research is determined by dominant groups.

13. Private Industry and Research Motivated by profit, private industry spends more money on research and development that the federal government does.

14. Symbolic Interactionist Perspective Knowledge is relative, it changes over time and between societies. Scientific “truths” are socially constructed and result from interactions between scientists, researchers, and the public. Who becomes involved in what aspects of science and technology is socially defined.

15. Teleworking A form of work that allows employees to work part- or full-time at home or at a satellite office.

16. Automation Automation means that machines can perform the labor originally provided by humans, such as robots that perform tasks on automobile assembly lines.

17. Households with Computers and Internet Access by Age: 2003 AgeComputer Internet Access Under 25 years old56.546.9 25 to 34 years old68.660.2 35 to 44 years old73.265.2 45 to 54 years old71.965.1 55 years or older46.640.8

18. Households with Computers and Internet Access by Sex: 2003 SexComputer Internet Access Male65.658.6 Female57.450.1

19. Households with Computers and Internet Access by Education: 2003 EducationComputer Internet Access Elementary20.614 Some high school32.724.3 High School Graduate/G.D.D. 51.143 Some college70.662.4 BA degree or higher83.378.3

20. Households with Computers and Internet Access by Income: 2003 Household IncomeComputerInternet Access Under $5,00035.626.8 $5,000 to $9,00026.920 $10,000 to $14,00031.723.7 $15,000 to $19,99938.229.4 $20,000 to $24,99946.136.7 $25,000 to $34,99955.445.6

21. Households with Computers and Internet Access by Income: 2003 Household IncomeComputersInternet Access $35,000 to $49,99971.162.8 $50,000 to $74,99981.976 $75,000 to $99,99988.184.1 $100,000 to $149,00092.990.4 $150,000 or more94.792.4

22. The Internet The interent is the international information infrastructure (a network of networks) available through universities, research institutes, government agencies, and businesses. Web 2.0 is a platform for millions of users to express themselves online in the common areas of cyberspace.

23. Common Online Activities, U.S., 2006

24. Genetics Molecular biology has led to a greater understanding of the genetic material found in all cells, DNA, and with it the ability for genetic screening. Gene therapy involves identifying defective or missing genes to get a healthy duplicate and transplant it to the affected cell. Genetic engineering is the ability to manipulate and alter the genes of an organism.

25. Genetically Engineered Food The first genetically engineered crop was introduced for commercial production in 1996. Today, there are more than 200 million acres devoted to these crops with the United States being the largest producer in the world.

26. Therapeutic Cloning Uses stem cells from human embryos. Stem cells can produce any type of cell in the human body. Stem cells have been used for repairing spinal cord injuries in mice, allowing them to walk normally. Because the use of stem cells can entail the destruction of human embryos, many conservatives, including President Bush, are opposed to the practice.

27. The Stem Cell Issue, 2004: Which Is More Important? Age Cures from Stem Cell Research Protecting Embryos Don’t Know 18-2961327 30-49583111 50-64553411 64 and older503218

28. The Stem Cell Issue, 2004: Which Is More Important? Political Affiliation Cures from Stem Cell Research Protecting Embryos Don’t Know Republican45 10 Democrat682210 Independent583012

29. The Stem Cell Issue, 2004: Which Is More Important? Self-described Cures from Stem Cell Research Protecting Embryos Don’t Know Conservative444511 Moderate612712 Liberal77167

30. The Stem Cell Issue, 2004: Which Is More Important? Religion Cures from Stem Cell Research Protecting Embryos Don’t Know Protestants523810 White evangelical 33589 White mainline691912 Black protestant473617 Catholic63289 Secular701614

31. Stem Cell Research Christopher Reeve, stage and movie actor best known for his portrayal of Superman, was a longtime advocate of federally funded research on embryonic stem cells. He died on October 10, 2004, at the age of 52.

32. Deskilling Labor requires less thought than before and gives workers fewer decisions to make. Upskilling Reduces alienation as employees find their work more meaningful, and have greater decision-making powers as information becomes less centralized.

33. % Saying New Technologies Will Have a Positive Impact, 2005

34. What Teens Share In an Online Environment, 2006 82% include their first names 79% include photos of themselves 61% include their city or town 29% include their last names 49% include their school’s name 40% include their IM screen name 39% include a link to their blog 29% include their email address 2% state their cell phone numbers

35. Outsourcing India’s outsourcing industry employs more than 1.2 million workers—a number that is likely to grow as multinational corporations seek qualified personnel outside the United States at a lower cost.

36. New Forms of Work The development of new technology has produced new forms of work and new demands for highly skilled workers in certain segments of the labor market.

37. Technology-induced Diseases Diseases that result from the use of technological devices, products, and/or chemicals

38. Future Shock The state of confusion resulting from rapid scientific and technological changes that unravel our traditional values and beliefs.

39. Genetic Exception Laws Laws that require that genetic information be handled separately from other medical information.

40. Gene Monopoly Exclusive control over a particular gene as a result of government patents

41. Chapter 16 Conflict, War and Terrorism

42. Chapter Outline The Global Context: Conflict in a Changing World Sociological Theories of War Causes of War Terrorism

43. Chapter Outline Social Problems Associated with Conflict, War, and Terrorism Strategies for Action: In Search of Global Peace Understanding Conflict, War, and Terrorism

44. War War, the most violent form of conflict, refers to organized armed violence aimed at a social group in pursuit of an objective. Whether war is just or unjust, defensive or offensive, it involves the most horrendous atrocities known to humankind.

45. Global Trends in Violent Conflict, 1946–2004

46. War and the Development of Civilization War resulted in small groups and villages becoming incorporated into larger political chiefdoms. Centuries of war between chiefdoms culminated in the development of the state.

47. State An apparatus of power, a set of institutions—the central government, the armed forces, the regulatory and police agencies—whose most important functions involve the use of force, the control of territory and the maintenance of internal order.

48. War and Industrialization Industrialization can decrease a society’s propensity for war, but it also increases the potential destructiveness of war because, with industrialization, warfare, technology becomes more sophisticated and lethal.

49. Annual Costs of Wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, 2001–2008 Operation2001–2008 Iraq564 Afghanistan154.6 Domestic security27.6 TOTAL 755.7

50. Cold War The state of military tension and political rivalry that existed between the United States and the former Soviet Union from the 1950s through the late 1980s.

51. Structural-Functionalist Perspective Gives members a “common cause” and a common enemy. In short term, war increases employment and stimulates economy. Inspires developments that are useful to civilians.

52. Structural Functionalist View of War Structural functionalists argue that a major function of war is that it produces unity among societal members. Societal members feel a sense of cohesion, and they work together to defeat the enemy.

53. Dual-use Technologies Defense funded technological innovations with commercial and civilian use.

54. Conflict Perspective on War War is the result of antagonisms that emerge when two or more groups struggle for control of resources. War benefits corporate, military, and political elites.

55. Military-Industrial Complex A term used by Dwight D. Eisenhower to connote the close association between the military and defense industries.

56. Symbolic Interactionist Perspective Meanings and definitions influence attitudes and behaviors regarding conflict and war. Attitudes and behaviors that support war develop in childhood. Most world governments preach peace through strength, rather than strength through peace.

57. Patriotism The face of patriotism is changing. A recent survey of 2005 college graduates found that 83% defined themselves as patriotic.

58. Causes of War Conflict over Land and Other Natural Resources Conflict over Values and Ideologies Racial and Ethnic Hostilities Defense against Hostile Attacks Revolution Nationalism

59. Conflict over Values and Ideologies World War II was largely a war over democracy versus fascism. Cold War largely involved conflict over capitalism versus communism. Wars over differing religious beliefs have led to some of the worst episodes of bloodshed in history.

60. Constructivist Explanations Explanations that emphasize the role of leaders of ethnic groups in stirring up hatred toward others external to one’s group.

61. Primordial Explanations Explanations that emphasize the existence of “ancient hatreds” rooted in deep psychological or cultural differences between ethnic groups, often involving a history of grievance and victimization, real or imagined, by the enemy group.

62. Security Dilemma A characteristic of the international state system that gives rise to unstable relations between states. As State A secures its borders and interests, its behavior may decrease the security of other states and cause them to engage in behavior that decrease A’s security.

63. Free Speech or Commerce? Arizona businessman Dan Frazier wears a version of the t-shirt banned in Arizona, Florida, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas. A judge will decide whether this is a commercial product or a form of free speech protected by the Constitution.

64. Terrorism Premeditated use, or threatened use, of violence to gain a political or social objective. Transnational terrorism occurs when a terrorist act in one country involves victims, targets, institutions, governments, or citizens of another country. Domestic terrorism is exemplified by the 1995 truck bombing of a nine-story federal office building in Oklahoma City, resulting in 168 deaths and the injury of more than 200 people.

65. Terrorism A jeep in flames at the entrance of Glasgow’s International Airport, site of a “failed” suicide bombing in June 2007. A suicide note confirmed that the drivers, one a British-born doctor of Iraqi descent, intended to explode the propane fuel bomb in the terminal.

66. Terrorism and Victims by Region, 2006

67. Patterns of Global Terrorism In 2005: There were approximately 14,000 terrorist attacks around the world. About 20,000 people lost their lives as a result of these incidents. There was a 25% increase in the number of incidents and a 40% increase in the number of fatalities compared with 2005. Over 50% of those killed or wounded were Muslims, and the majority lived in Iraq.

68. Causes of Terrorism A failed or weak state, which is unable to control terrorist operations. Rapid modernization, when, for example, a country’s sudden wealth leads to rapid social change. Extreme ideologies—religious or secular. A history of political violence, civil wars, and revolutions.

69. Causes of Terrorism Repression by a foreign occupation (i.e., invaders to the inhabitants). Large-scale racial or ethnic discrimination. The presence of a charismatic leader.

70. The Process of Ideological Development

71. Reports of Prisoner Mistreatment at Guantanamo Bay Isolated Incidents Wider Pattern Neither/ Don’t know Men566410 Women523414 18-29 years old434611 30-49 years old55369 50-64 years old592813 65 years and older562519

72. Reports of Prisoner Mistreatment at Guantanamo Bay Isolated Incidents Wider Pattern Neither/ Don’t know White573112 Black355213 Hispanic444511 Republican761410 Democrat434512 Independent454411

73. Insurgent Forces An Iraqi insurgent takes aim on U.S. positions in Najaf during battle in January 2006. Although the U.S. Army has superior weapons and training, insurgent forces rely on deep knowledge of urban terrain and count on support from the local population.

74. Guerrilla Warfare Warfare in which organized groups oppose domestic or foreign governments and their military forces; often involves small groups of individuals who use camouflage and underground tunnels to hide until they are ready to execute a surprise attack.

75. Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) Chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons that have the capacity to kill large numbers of people indiscriminately.

76. Social Problems of War: Women and Children Before and during WWII, the Japanese military forced 100,000 to 200,000 women and girls into prostitution as military “comfort women”. Refugee women and female children are vulnerable to sexual abuse and exploitation.

77. Child Soldiers A child soldier in Liberia points his gun at a cameraman while carting a teddy bear on his back. Although reliable figures are hard to obtain, the UN estimates that there are about 300,000 child soldiers fighting in wars worldwide.

78. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Symptoms include recurring nightmares, flashbacks, poor concentration. Associated with family violence, alcoholism, divorce, and suicide. Estimate 30% of male veterans of the Vietnam war have experienced PTSD, and about 15% continue to experience it.

79. Environmental Degradation Oil smoke from the 650 burning oil wells left in the wake of the Gulf War contains soot, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides, the major components of acid rain, along with a variety of toxic and potentially carcinogenic chemicals and heavy metals.

80. Nuclear Winter The predicted result of a thermonuclear war whereby thick clouds of radioactive dust and particles would block out vital sunlight, lower temperature in the Northern Hemisphere, and lead to the death of most living things on earth.

81. Selected Federal U.S. Outlays for 2007

82. Iraqi Elections On January 30, 2005, millions of Iraqis defied the insurgents and voted in their first free election in half a century. Afghanistan’s first ever parliamentary election took place on September 18, 2005.

83. Humanitarian Aid A woman in Darfur scoops up grain spilled from bags dropped from a plane by the UN’s World Food Program. The fighting in Darfur makes it very difficult for humanitarian aid agencies to run regular operations to feed, clothe, and shelter civilians.

84. United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Summary Data, 2007 Military personnel and civilian police serving in peacekeeping operations 82,873 Countries contributing military personnel and civilian police 118 International civilian personnel4,782 Local civilian personnel10,879 UN volunteers2,049

85. United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Summary Data, 2007 Fatalities in peacekeeping operations since 1948 2,365 Budgets for 7/1/04 to 6/30/05$5.48 billion Total cost of operations from 1948 to 6/04 $41.74 billion

86. Mediation A neutral third party facilitates negotiation between representatives or leaders of conflicting groups.

87. Arbitration A neutral third party listens to evidence and arguments presented by conflicting groups and arrives at a decision or outcome that the two parties agree to accept.