1. Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Phonetics and Phonology
Phonetics: the study of sounds
The production of speech
The sounds of speech
The description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.
It focuses on chaos.

2. Phonetics studies the characteristics of human speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.

3. Speech Sounds Phonology: the study of sound patterns
The rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables
It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.
It focuses on order.

4. Speech Sounds Three mains areas in phonetics
Articulatory phonetics: the production of speech sounds
Acoustic phonetics: the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech
Auditory phonetics: the perception of speech sounds

5. Speech Sounds Speech organs (Vocal organs) LUNGS TRACHEA
THROAT (Pharynx and Larynx)
NOSE
MOUTH (Tongue and parts of palate)

6. Three cavities of the VOCAL TRACT
Pharynx （咽腔）
Mouth (ORAL CAVITY)
Nose (NASAL CAVITY)
The energy sources of speech sounds is an AIRSTREAM.

7. VOICELESS and VOICED
Voiceless: When the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass through easily.
Voiced: When the vocal folds are closed together, they are caused to be vibrated by the airstream.

8. The Upper Part of the mouth
UPPER LIP
UPPER TEETH
ALVEOLAR RIDGE： 齿龈
HARD PALATE： 硬腭
SOFT PALATE ( VELUM)：软腭
UVULA：小舌

9. The Bottom Part of the mouth
LOWER LIP
LOWER TEETH
TONGUE (TIP, BLADE, FRONT, BACK, and ROOT)
MANDIBLE （下颚/下颌）

10. Phonetic transcription
IPA ( International Phonetic Alphabet)
The first version of the IPA
- In 1886, proposed by Otto Jespersen
- In 1888, the first version of the IPA was published
The present system of the IPA: In 1920s, by Daniel Jones
The latest version of the IPA: in 1993 (revised) and in 1996 (corrected)

11. Consonants Manners of articulation STOP (PLOSIVE) ：塞音（爆破音） NASAL：鼻音
FRICATIVE：擦音
APPROXIMANT：通音（近音）
LATERAL：边音
AFFRICATE：塞擦音

12. Places of articulation
Bilabial：双唇音
Labiodental：唇齿音
Dental：齿音
Alveolar：齿龈音
Postalveolar：后龈音
Palatal：硬颚音
Velar：软腭音
Glottal：声门音

13. Description of English consonants [p]: voiceless bilabial stop
[b]: voiced bilabial stop
[s]: voiceless alveolar fricative
[z]: voiced alveolar fricative

14. Vowels Four criteria to description of vowels
FRONT, CENTRAL, and BACK : the part of tongue that is raised)
HIGH, MID (MID-HIGH, MID-LOW), and LOW：the extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate
ROUNDING and SPREADING: the kind of opening made at the lips
OPEN, CLOSE, and SEMI-OPEN vowels : how wide the mouth is opened in the production.
LONG vowels and SHORT vowels: the length of the vowels

15. Broad Transcription and Narrow Transcription
Broad Transcription: the use of simple set of symbols in the transcription
Narrow Transcription: the use of more specific symbols in the transcription

16. Phoneme and allophones
It is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.
English has approximately 45 phonemes
Phonemes are transcribed using the normal set of phonetic symbols, but within ‘/ /’ instead of ‘[ ]’

17. Minimal pairs
Pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound
e.g. chunk and junk fail and veil
ban and bin fine and vine
sink and zinc fan and van
site and side bet and bat

18. Allophones
- Aspirated [ph] and unaspirated [p=] are different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called ALLOPHONES.
- The allophones are in COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION because they never occur in the same context.

19. Some Phonological rules
/p/ →[p=] / [s] ________
[ph ] elsewhere
/l/ → [l] / _________ V
[l] / V ————

20. Assimilation Rules Nasalization Rule
[- nasal] → [+ nasal] / —— [+ nasal]
Dentalization Rule
[- dental] → [+ dental] / —— [+ dental]
Velarization Rule
[- velar] → [+ velar] / ——— [+ velar]
Devoicing Rule
z → s / [- voiced, C] ________

21. Syllables σ
O(nset) R(hyme)
N(ucleus) Co(da)
K l a s p

22. Sonority Scale Most Sonorous 5 Vowels 4 Approximants 3 Nasals
2 Fricatives
Least Sonorous Stops

23. Stress Word Stress and Sentence Stress
Primary Stress and Secondary Stress

24. Exercises and Discussion Questions
1. Define the following terms briefly.
linguistics, arbitrariness, competence, formalism, phatic communion, diachronic linguistics, assimilation, phonetics, allophones, voiced

25. Exercises and Discussion Questions
2. What kind of evidence supports the idea that language is culturally transmitted?
3. What is the difference between langue and parole?

26. Exercises and Discussion Questions
4. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature or features which they share.
[f] [v] [t] [d] [s] [z]
[k] [g] [w] [j] [l] [n]

27. Exercises and Discussion Questions
5. The following sets of minimal pairs show that English [p] and [b] contrast in initial, medial and final positions, e.g. pit/bit rapid/rabid cap/cab. Find similar sets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given:
[b]-[v] [p]-[f] [k]-[g]

28. Exercises and Discussion Questions
6. Provide syllable representations of the following words
- adapt
- corrode
- torment