1. Chapter 2 Phonetics

2. Phonetics A science to study how linguistic sounds are produced.
Three subfields of phonetics: acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, and articulatory phonetics.
To describe how linguistic sounds are produced.

3. Outline 1. Backgrounds 2. Place of articulation 3. Consonants
1.1 Segments and transcription
1.2 Speech organs
1.3 Phonation
1.4 Distinction between vowels and consonants
2. Place of articulation
3. Consonants
4. Consonants: Manner of articulation
4.1 Obstruents
4.2 Sonorants
5. Vowels
5.1 Monothongs
5.2 Diphthongs
5.3 Nasalized vowels
6. Suprasegments
6.1 Syllables
6.2 Stress
6.3 Tone
6.4 Intonation
7. Summary

4. 1. Backgrounds 1.1 Segments and transcription 1.2 Speech organs
1.3 Phonation
1.4 Distinction between vowels and consonants

5. 1.1 Segments and Transcription
Spoken sounds
written wowrds
disappear as soon as they are uttered
can be reserved for a long time
IPA
Phonetic transcription system
Sounds were transcribed for teaching & studying
Recorders

6. 1.1 Segments and Transcription
Ex: Takebanuad spoken by Bunun in Xingyi, Nantou.
Unintelligible sounds =Noises
1. “ Where is the teacher?”
2. A sentence composed of seven
syllables I-isaq-a-masnanava?’
Sounds cannot be written but they can be transcribed.
IPA

7. IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet)
Designed in 1821 by International Phonetic Association (also abbreviated as IPA).
The version in 1995:

8. 1.2 Speech organs Any sound is produced with three factors: Ex:
1. a vibrator
2. a force to make it vibrate
3. a transmission media
Ex:
the vibrator : six cords
the force that makes cords vibrate : fingers
the transmission : air

9. The waves was transmissioned to audience’s ears.
1.2 Speech organs
Three Steps of sound production:
1. inhale air and save it in our lungs
2. when we speak, press our lungs so an airstream will come out
3. the airstream vibrates vocal cords, resulting in waves
The waves was transmissioned to audience’s ears.
the vibrator : vocal cords
The force makes vocal cords vibrate : the airstream saved in our lungs
the transmission : air

10. 1.3 Phonation
Phonation : production of voiced and voiceless sounds due to the close or open of the vocal cords in the larynx.

11. (voiceless consonants)
open in 60%-95%
Airstream comes out without vibrating the vocal cords
English [p, t, k, f, , s, h, , t]
Chinese [p, ph, f, t, th, k, kh, ts, tsh, s, , t, th, , t, th, h]
(voiced consonants)
Airstream vibrates
English [b, d, g,, m, n, N , v,  , d, z, l, r, w, j]
Chinese [l, m, n, N, w, j]

12. 1.3 Phonation Two ways to identify voiceless and voiced:
1. Put your hands over the larynx, feel the vibration of the vocal cords.
2. Cover your ears with your hands. When a voiced
sound is produced, you can hear a hissing sound, much like a bee’s buzzing.
Ex: [s] from [z] → repeat sssszzzzsss.

13. 1.3 Phonation
Aspiration: a voiceless consonant produced with the duration of noiselessness
e.g. English [ph] in pie [phai] Chinese [ph] in assign [phai]
[th] in tie [thai] [th] in too much [thai]
[kh] in kite [khait] [kh] in fast [khuai]
Unaspirated: consonants produced without such a voiceless duration
e.g. English [p] in spy [spai]
[t] in stick [stik]
[k] in sky [skai].

14. 1.4 Disctinction between vowels and consonants
What is a vowel?
What is a consonant?
What are the differences?

15. 1.4 Disctinction between vowels and consonants
1. Vowels differ from consonants in waveforms.
vowels: periodic
consonants: aperiodic.

16. 1.4 Disctinction between vowels and consonants
2. Vowels differ from consonants in oral cavity.
vowel: the oral cavity is wide enough without incurring any friction.
consonant: part of the tongue body is raised over a certain point in such a way that a narrow cavity emerges, which in turn causes friction.

17. 1.4 Disctinction between vowels and consonants
3. Vowels differ from consonants in formants.
vowels: there are formants
consonants: the formants are far less clear for consonants.

18. 1.4 Disctinction between vowels and consonants
4. Vowels differ from consonants in the position of a syllable.
vowel: usually occurs in the nucleus position of a syllable.
Consonant: usually does not occur in the nucleus position.
e.g.
In the syllable [hd] (head),
[] is the nucleus
[h] is onset
[d] is coda

19. 2. Place of articulation

20. Place of articulation
Organs are divided into two types: laryngeal and supralaryngeal
place
manner
voiced
voiceless

21. Place of articulation
The velum will decide whether the air stream has to pass either oral or nasal cavity, or both.

22. Place of articulation 1. Nasal: English [m, n, N].
2. Nasalized: Taiwanese [i(], [e)], [a)], [o)]
[i)]= ‘yard’
[e)]= ‘baby’
[a)]= ‘to bend’
[o)]= ‘to make a baby
sleep’
3. Oral: English [i, e, o, , æ]

23. Place of articulation Passive(cannot move freely)
Active(mainly our tongue)

24. 3. Consonants

25. Consonants

26. Bilabial consonants [b, p, pH, m]
Three steps for the production of bilabial consonants:
1. Squeeze the lungs so that the airstream would come to the oral cavity.
2. Stop the airstream by closing the upper and the lower lips.
3. Release the airstream by opening the oral cavity.
Stop consonant(plosive consonants): When the airstream coming from lungs it is stopped

27. describe whether the airstream is stopped or continuous
Distinctive features
In the field of phonology and phonetics, we use distinctive features to characterize sounds.
Distinctive features are essentially based on place and manner of articulation.
All the features are marked by [+] or [-].
e.g.
A [+] denotes the presence of that feature
A [-] denotes the absence from that feature
describe whether the airstream is stopped or continuous

28. Distinctive features

29. Consonants

30. Labio-dental consonants [f, v]
/f/, /v/: Produced by having the upper teeth put on the lower lip.
Continuents : The point where the upper teeth and the lower lip are put together is not so tight that the airstream from the lungs can barely go through.
Fricative consonants: Some friction in
the narrow cavity between
the upper teeth and the lower
lip forces (f, v,)
stop
continuent

31. Interdental consonants [, ]
//, //: Produced by putting the tip of the tongue between the upper and the lower teeth.
Fricative continuents : Although the tip is put between the upper and the lower teeth, some space is left for the airstream, making it continuous.
Voiced: //
Voiceless: //

32. Distinctive features

33. Consonants

34. Alveolar [d, t. n. l, s, z]
/d/, /t/, /n/, /l/, /s/, /z/: Produced in the same manner by raising the tip of the tongue to the alveolar.
Three steps of the production of alveolar stops:
1. Puff the airstream out of the oral cavity.
2. Stop the airstream somewhere.
3. Release the airstream when
followed by a vowel.
[d, t, th, n] differ from [b, p, ph, m]
in place.
The airstream is stopped at the point where the tip of the tongue touches the alveolar.
The airstream is stopped at the point where the upper and the lower lips are closed.

35. Alveolar [d, t. n. l, s, z]
Fricative continuents: The tip of the tongue merely touches the alveolar in such a way that some space is left for the airstream to pass through
Sibilants : All of the fricative consonants come up with some turbulent noises due to the friction

36. Consonants
coronal

37. Coronal [d, t, th, n, s, z]
Coronal: The area from the alveolar to the post- alveolar.
All the consonants produced at any point of the coronal, are of the feature [+coronal].
[d, t, th] are [-nasal], while [n] is [+nasal], owing to the different position of the velum.

38. labial alveolar b p m f v d t n l s z + - segment features place
[coronal]
[anterior]
manner
[continue]
[nasal]
[voiced]
[lateral]

39. Consonants

40. Post-alveolar [, ]
/ /, / /: Produced by raising the tip of the tongue up to the post-alveolar
Also called alveo-palatal: A little back from the alveolar and it is part of the hard palatal.
[+coronal]
Voiced: / /
Voiceless: / /

41. Anterior
Anterior: Adopted for the distinction between segments produced before the alveolar and those after that.
[+anterior]: labials, labio-dentals, alveolars
[-anterior]: post-alveolars
anterior

42. Affricate consonants [t, d]
Affricate: A combination of a stop and a fricative.
There is a very short closure for the airstream, and then in a very short time it is open for the airstream to come out.
Voiced: /d/
Voiceless: /t/
e.g.:
white sheep [wait ip] → [waitip]
white shoes →why choose

43. labial alveolar Post-alveolar b p m f v d t n l s z   t d + -
segment
features b p m f v d t n l s z   t d
place
[labial] + -
[alveolar]
[coronal]
[anterior]
manner
[continue]
[nasal]
[voiced]
[lateral]

44. Liquids [r, l]
/r/: the tip of the tongue is a little curled back, when it is raised upward
To compare with [l], [r] leaves more space between the tip of the tongue and the post-alveolar ridge.
Liquid: Can be produced or perceived differently depending on different individuals, like water.
Coronal
Lateral
[l] +
[r] -
/l/+vowel → clear /l/ (let)
vowel + /l/ → dark or velarized /l/ (tell)

45. Consonants

46. Velar stop consonants [g, k, kh,]
Very much like other stops [b, p, ph, m] and [d, t, th, n] in place and manner of articulation.
The closure point lies in the contact between the tongue body (specifically the dorsal) and the velar
velar nasal

47. Velar stop consonants [g, k, kh,]
Three steps for the production of stop consonants:
1. Press the lungs so that airstream is pushed out.
2. Stop the airstream by raising the back of the dorsal to contact the velar.
3. Release the airflow when it is followed by a vowel.
[b, p, ph, m]
[d, t, th, n]
[g, k, kh, ]
The closure lies in the closure of the upper and the lower lips.
The closure occurs because of the tight contact between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar.
The closure occurs in the dorsal and the velar.

48. labials
alveolars
velars b p pH m d t tH n g k kH 
place
[labial] ＋ －
[cronal]
[velar]
manner
[continuent]
[voiced]
[asp]
[nasal]

49. Sounds Laryngeal [b, d, g] Voiced Voiceless [ph, th, kh] Aspirated
Unaspirated
[p, t, k]
Supralargeal
Place
Bi-labial
Labio-dental
Dental
Alveolar
Alveo-palatal
Velar
Coronal
Manner
Stops
Fricatives
Affricatives
Laterals
Nasals

50. 4. Consonants: Manner of Articulation
4.1 Obstruents
4.2 Sonorants

51. 4.1 Obstruents
Obstruents: A group of consonants produced with more or less friction in the oral cavity.
They can further be decomposed into stops, fricatives, and affricates.

52. 4.1 Obstruents The upper teeth bites the lower lip
The tip of the tongue is put between the upper and the lower teeth
(a) from the nasal cavity
(b) also recognized as sonorants
The tip of the tongue is raised to the alveolar or the post-alveolar
Results from a narrow cavity, formed by the tongue body and the upper ridge.
The cavity is so narrow that the airstream coming out of the lungs is turbulent, giving rise to friction.
Consonants produced with a closure at the places of lips, alveolar, or velar are called stop consonants or plosive consonants.
Results from a combination of a stop and a fricative.

53. 4.2 Sonorants
Sonorants are usually produced without obvious friction. (no narrow cavity for those consonants)
Sonorants can be divided into three types: nasals, glides, and liquids. However, glides and liquids are also grouped into the class of approximants.

54. 4.2 Sonorants
One of the stop consonants; However, there are some resonances occurring in the nasal cavity.
1. The waveforms of sonorant consonants
are periodic, more or less like vowels.
consonant
2. Most sonorants get obvious but not so
clear formants.
approximant
vowel
3. Sonorants are loud enough to be
different from obstruents.
Danial Jones (1948)

55. Glide Usually called semi-vowels. [j] → front glide [w] → back glide.
Slightly different from high vowels [i] and [u].
Semi-vowels and high vowels are treated as allophones.
e.g.
cute [kjut]
house [hws]
not syllable nucleus→ glide
heed [hid]
hood [hud]
at the nucleus of that syllable →vowel

56. 5. Vowels
5.1 Monothongs
5.2 Diphthongs
5.3 Nasalized vowels

57. Vowels The most sonorous of all linguistic sounds
There is no or little friction
(produced with oral cavity as wide as possible)
Classified into monothongs and diphthongs,
or oral and nasalized vowels

58. 5.1 Monothongs
The distinction lies mainly on lip rounding and the backness of the tongue body
schwa []: not high and not low, neither front nor back
high / low
front / back.

59. 5.1 Monothongs
the tongue body is raised upward (almost to the post-alveolar ridge)
e.g. key [ki]
the back of the tongue body is raised upward (nearly to the velar)
e.g. cool [kul]
[u]
[i]
the tongue body is raised high
the tongue body stays at the low and central position
e.g. car [kar]
the tongue body is low
[a]

60. 5.1 Monothongs cardinal vowels the tongue body is between [i] and [a]
2/3
[o]
The tongue body is between [u] and [a] for the back vowels
[e]

61. 5.1 Monothongs
In addition to the tongue body, vowels can be distinguished by lip rounding.
rounded, spread, or neutral
[u] and [o]
schwa []
e.g. about
[i] and [e]

62. 5.1 Monothongs
In the theory of distinctive features, four features, [high], [low], [back], and [round], are adopted:
In a few languages, the low vowel is essentially central, so there are usually two allophones occurring in different situations.
[a] (the front /a/)
[] (the back /a/)

63. 5.1 Monothongs In English, there are two sets of vowels.
tense vowels are longer than lax vowels in duration.
The duration between tense and lax vowels (Laver, 1994)

64. 5.2 Diphthongs A diphthong is basically composed of two vowels:
(a vowel + a glide, [j] or [w])
[aj, oj, aw]
the sonority is from high (vowels) to low (glides), so the three diphthongs are called falling diphthong

65. 5.3 Nasalized vowels In English, there is no phonemic nasalized vowel.
nasal consonant + vowel
vowel + nasal consonant
They are unpredictable and distinctive.
/i/→[i)] in me
/o/→[o)] in no
can [k)n]
pen [p)n]

66. 5.3 Nasalized vowels
In Southern Min of Taiwan, nasalized vowels are phonemic.
A lot of languages also have phonemic nasalized vowels, such as Sudanese, Indonesian, Malay, French, etc.

67. 6. Suprasegments
6.1 Syllables
6.2 Stress
6.3 Tone
6.4 Intonation

68. Suprasegments
By suprasegments, we mean syllable, stress, tone, and intonation, which cannot be characterized by a single segment.
A segment can be described precisely on the basis of manner and place of articulation. However, a suprasegment is far more beyond that.

69. 6.1 Syllables onset + rime (nucleus + coda) More examples:
non-branching rime
branching rime
light syllable
heavy syllable
unstressed
stressed
Open syllable
No coda
→ unstressed
Close syllable
Coda [t] / [r]
→ stressed

70. 6.2 Stress Stress is usually denoted by pitch.
A stressed syllable gets a higher pitch
A non-stressed syllable gets a lower pitch
higher
lower
lower
higher
differently stressed due to categorical difference

71. 6.3 Tone 1 2 perceived by a higher pitch 3
stress languages
English
German
Spanish
tone languages
Chinese
Tibetan
Vietnam
Tai 1 2
perceived by a higher pitch 3
perceived by an absolute pitch

72. 6.3 Tone
stress languages
English
German
Spanish
tone languages
Chinese
Tibetan
Vietnam
Tai
High tones of different languages might be different in pitch values.
The level high tone remains intact when it is followed by other tones.
high tone
rinsing tone
contour tone
falling tone
the highest tone
clothes
Mandarin 5
shan55
Southern Min 4
Sa)44

73. 6.3 Tone
Tones of most African languages are composed of high tone (H), mid tone (M), and low tone (L).
Contour tones like High Low or Low High tones can sometimes be combined with H and L, or L and H, respectively.
Contour tones emerge when a high tone is added with a low tone suffix.
e.g. + olu→ ebu^lu H L
HL(contour tone)

74. 6.4 Intonation
Stress → the contrast between a stressed and an unstressed syllable
Intonation → sentential stress.

75. 6.4 Intonation The most prominent syllable stressed
The pitch is higher
The pitch contour is exactly of the pattern 231

76. 6.4 Intonation falling pattern (231) statements wh-quesitons
rising intonation
(223)
yes/no questions
rising and falling
(23, 23, 231)
alternative statements