1. Social Contact Concepts, determinants, and measurements

2. Concept and Definitions  Complex concept Multitude of different experiences Multitude of different situations  Work, home, travel Personal; occurs between a minimum of 2 persons  Interpersonal encounter Encounter with others  Positive, negative or superficial

3. Levels of Social Contact  Co-presence Minimum level of interaction Signaling awareness of presence and accessibility  Focused Higher level of interaction Gathering and cooperating to sustain single focus of attention  Co-presence may or may not lead to focused interaction

4. Analysis of Social Situations Features of social interactions (Argyle et al., 1981):  Goals Purposes that direct and motivate  Rules Shared beliefs that regulate and generate actions  Roles Duties and rights of social position of interactants  Repertoire of elements Sum of verbal and non-verbal behavior

5.  Sequences of behavior Specific order of actions for effective behavior  Concepts Understanding of elements for behavior and goal achievement  Environmental setting Encounter setting (spaces, boundaries)  Language Speech and variations  Difficulties and skills Perceptual, memory, motor, and linguistic skills Analysis of Social Situations

6. Social Contact in Tourism  Tourist-host  Tourist-tourist  Tourist-potential tourist  Tourist-provider contacts

7. Definition of Tourist Range of meanings  Degree of institutionalization, type of encounter, form of travel, traveler status  Operational Temporary visitor Arriving at holiday destination Stays for minimum of 24 hrs, maximum of 12 months Any purpose other than employment

8. Definition of (Professional) Host  Resident of visited destination  Employed in tourism industry  Tourist service-providers

9. Setting of Tourist-Host Contact  Transportation  Lodging  Dining  Sightseeing  Shopping  Entertainment  Observations

10. Forms of Tourist-Host Contact  Purchasing of goods and services  Side-by-side presence/exchange  Face to face exchange of information

11. Tourist-Host Cultural Contact  Face to face contact between tourists and hosts  Different cultural backgrounds  Travel from home culture to host culture  Serving tourists from foreign culture

12.  Two types of contact Intercultural contact  Interaction between two different cultures Cross-cultural contact  Interaction between more than two cultural groups Tourist-Host Cultural Contact

13. Contact Hypothesis Social contact between individuals from different cultural groups results in  Positive outcomes Mutual appreciation, understanding, respect, tolerance, liking (Bochner, 1982) Positive attitudes (Fisher and Price, 1991) Reduces ethnic prejudices, stereotypes, and racial tension (Cohen, 1971) Cultural enrichment, improved social interactions (UNESCO, 1976; Vogt, 1977)

14. Social contact between individuals from different cultural groups results in  Negative outcomes Negative attitudes Negative stereotypes, prejudices, tensions, hostility (Bochner, 1982) Ethnocentrism (Triandis and Vassilou, 1967) Clashes of values, conflict, and disharmonies (Hall, 1984) Contact Hypothesis

15. Social contact between individuals from different cultural groups results in  Negative outcomes Exclusion from mutual activities (Asar, 1952) Formality of contact, social barriers, personal friendship barriers (Taft, 1977) Superficial relationships (Watson and Lippitt, 1955) Negative feelings, inferiority, self-rejection (Bettelheim, 1943) Contact Hypothesis

16. Social contact between individuals from different cultural groups results in  Negative outcomes Resentment, irritation, frustration, and stress (Taft, 1977) Language barriers (Arjona, 1956), communication problems (Argyle et al., 1981) Loss of sense of security and emotional well-being (Lynch, 1960) Contact Hypothesis

17. Social contact between individuals from different cultural groups results in  Negative outcomes Differences in subjective cultures Social contact becomes a threatening experience Participants feel like outsiders Inhibits social interaction, future contact lost (Kamal and Maruyama, 1990) Negative feelings increase with frequent contact (Anant, 1971) Contact Hypothesis

18. Contact Hypothesis in Tourism Positives  Tourism’s potential for fostering understanding between nations and peace  ‘Guest’ treatment, cultural pride among hosts, greater socialization Friendly, respectful, interested tourists  Contact and knowledge of each other seen as important  Enhancement of tourist and host attitudes  Positive attitude (change) towards hosts Greater intensity and longer contact/interaction time Higher satisfaction levels

19. Negatives  Positive attitudes not possible due to superficial nature of tourist-host contact  Distorted and superficial perceptions Perceptions of tourist based on symbols Perceptions of host based on status and outcomes of commercial exchange Contact Hypothesis in Tourism

20. Negatives  Negative change of attitudes Minor change in positive direction Majority of change in negative direction Extra tension added as a result of economic encounter Confirmation of positive or negative attitudes Contact Hypothesis in Tourism

21. Negatives  Pressure to develop stereotypes ‘Passing through’ character of tourists  Clash of values Liberal values of Western tourists and domestic social rules Reversal of gender roles Tourist isolation, separation, and segregation Stress, victimization and harassment Contact Hypothesis in Tourism

22. Negatives  Communication problems Differences in language, gesture, space, time, and status Safety and health hazards Disappointment, discouragement and dissatisfaction Contact Hypothesis in Tourism

23. Tourist-Host Contact  Advantages outweigh disadvantages Break up isolation, create awareness among cultural groups Opportunity to learn and fundamental intercultural encounters  Less developed countries Negative effect of contact is increased Tourists perceived as aggressive and insensitive Exploitation, assault, victimization, social problems