1. Chapter 14 Lecture PowerPoint
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3. Hole’s Human Anatomy and Physiology Twelfth Edition Shier w Butler w Lewis
Chapter 14
Blood
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4. 14.1: Introduction Blood: Is connective tissue
Transports vital substances
Maintains stability of interstitial fluid
Distributes heat
Blood cells:
Form mostly in red bone marrow and are:
Red blood cells (RBCs)
White blood cells (WBCs)
Platelets (cell fragments)
The amount of blood varies with body size, changes in fluid concentration, changes in electrolyte concentration, and amount of adipose tissue
Blood is about 8% of body weight
Adult blood volume is about 5 liters

5. Centrifuged Blood Sample
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Centrifuged Blood Sample
Liquid (plasma)
“Buffy coat” (white blood cells and platelets)
Red blood cells
Peripheral Blood Smear
White blood
cells
Red blood cells
Platelets

6. Capillary tube Plasma = 55% Buffy coat Red cells = 45% (hematocrit)
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Capillary tube
Plasma = 55%
Buffy coat
Red cells = 45%
(hematocrit)
Plug

7. Blood 45% 55% Formed elements Plasma Platelets Red blood cells
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Blood
45%
55%
Formed elements
Plasma
Platelets
Red blood cells
White blood cells
Electrolytes
Water
Proteins
Wastes
Nutrients
Gases
(4.8%)
(95.1%)
(0.1%)
(92%)
(7%)
Vitamins
Hormones
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Monocytes
Lymphocytes
Albumins
Globulins
Fibrinogen N2 O2
CO2
(54–62%)
(1–3%)
(<1%)
(3–9%)
(25–33%)

8. 14.2: Blood Cells
Blood cells originate in red marrow from hemocytoblasts or hematopoietic stem cells
Stem cells can then:
Give rise to more stem cells
Specialize or differentiate

9. The Origin of Blood Cells
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Hematopoietic stem cell
Myeloid stem cell
Lymphoid stem cell
Lymphoblast
B cell
precursor
Proerythroblast
Myeloblast
Monoblast
Lymphoblast
T cell
precursor
Megakaryoblast
In red bone marrow
Progranulocyte
Prolymphocyte
Erythroblast
Neutrophilic
myelocyte
Basophilic
myelocyte
Eosinophilic
myelocyte
Promonocyte
Prolymphocyte
Normoblast
Megakaryocyte
Reticulocyte
Neutrophilic
band cell
Basophilic
band cell
Eosinophilic
band cell
In circulating blood
Erythrocyte
Thrombocytes
(platelets)
T lymphocyte
B lymphocyte
Neutrophil
Basophil
Eosinophil
Monocyte
Granulocytes
Agranulocytes
Activated in tissues
(some cells)
Macrophage
Plasma cell
(a)
(b)

10. Characteristics of Red Blood Cells
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Red blood cells are:
Erythrocytes
Biconcave discs
One-third hemoglobin or:
Oxyhemoglobin
Deoxyhemoglobin
Able to readily squeeze through capillaries
Lack nuclei and mitochondria
Top view
7.5 micrometers
2.0 micrometers
Sectional view
(a)
(b)
b: © Bill Longcore/Photo Researchers, Inc.

11. Red Blood Cell Counts
RBC counts is the number of RBCs in a cubic millimeter or microliter of blood
It may vary depending on age and health
Typical ranges include:
4,600,000 – 6,200,000 in males
4,200,000 – 5,400,000 in adult females
4,500,000 – 5,100,000 in children
RBC counts reflects blood’s oxygen carrying capacity

12. Red Blood Cell Production and Its Control
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Low blood oxygen causes the kidneys and the liver to release erythropoietin (EPO) which stimulates RBC production
This is a negative feedback mechanism
Within a few days many new blood cells appear in the circulating blood
Low blood oxygen
Release into
bloodstream
Liver
Kidney
Stimulation
Inhibition –
Erythropoietin
Increased
oxygen-
carrying
capacity
Bloodstream
Increased
number of
red blood
cells +
Red bone marrow

13. Dietary Factors Affecting Red Blood Cell Production
Vitamin B12 and folic acid are necessary
They are required for DNA synthesis making them necessary for the growth and division of all cells
Iron is also necessary
It is required for hemoglobin synthesis

14. Red bone marrow Bone Nutrients from food 2 Blood transports
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Red bone
marrow
Bone
Nutrients
from food 2
Blood transports
absorbed nutrients 3
Red blood
cells produced
Vitamin B12
Folic acid
Iron 1
Absorption 4
Red blood cells
circulate in
bloodstream for
about 120 days 5
Macrophage
Old red
blood cells 6
Hemoglobin
Blood
Globin + Heme 7
Iron + Biliverdin
Bile
Liver
Small
intestine
Bilirubin 8

15. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
(a)
(b)
a: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Al Telser, photographer :b © Ed Reschke

16. and Porphyria Variegata
14.1 Clinical Application
King George III
and Porphyria Variegata

17. Destruction of Red Blood Cells

18. Types of White Blood Cells
Are leukocytes
Protect against disease
WBC hormones are interleukins and colony-stimulating factors which stimulate development
There are five types of WBCs in two categories:
Granulocytes
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Agranulocytes
Lymphocytes
Monocytes

19. Neutrophils Light purple granules in acid-base stain Lobed nucleus
Other names
Segs
Polymorphonuclear leukocyte
Bands (young neutrophils)
First to arrive at infections
Phagocytic
54% - 62% of leukocytes
Elevated in bacterial infections
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
© Ed Reschke

20. Eosinophils Deep red granules in acid stain Bi-lobed nucleus
Moderate allergic reactions
Defend against parasitic worm infestations
1% - 3% of leukocytes
Elevated in parasitic worm infestations and allergic reactions
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
© Ed Reschke

21. Basophils Deep blue granules in basic stain Release histamine
Release heparin
Less than 1% of leukocytes
Similar to eosinophils in size and shape of nuclei
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© Ed Reschke

22. © R. Kessel/Visuals Unlimited
Monocytes
Largest of all blood cells
Spherical, kidney-shaped, oval or lobed nuclei
Leave bloodstream to become macrophages
3% - 9% of leukocytes
Phagocytize bacteria, dead cells, and other debris
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
© R. Kessel/Visuals Unlimited

23. Lymphocytes Slightly larger than RBC
Large spherical nucleus surrounded by thin rim of cytoplasm
T cells and B cells
Both important in immunity
B cells produce antibodies
25% - 33% of leukocytes
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
© Ed Reschke

24. Functions of White Blood Cells
WBCs protect against infection
These leukocytes can squeeze between the cells of a capillary wall and enter the tissue space outside the blood vessel (called diapedesis)
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Connective
tissue
Blood capillary
Leukocyte

25. Bacteria are introduced into the dermis Bacteria multiply
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1
Splinter
punctures
epidermis 2
Bacteria are introduced
into the dermis
Bacteria
multiply
Injured cells
release histamine,
causing blood
vessels to dilate 3 4
Epidermis
Dermis
Blood vessels 5
Neutrophils move through
blood vessel walls and
migrate toward bacteria 6
Neutrophils destroy
bacteria by phagocytosis

26. White Blood Cell Counts
A procedure used to count number of WBCs per cubic millimeter of blood
Typically 5,000 – 10,000 per cubic millimeter of blood
Leukopenia:
Low WBC count (below 5,000)
Typhoid fever, flu, measles, mumps, chicken pox, AIDS
Leukocytosis:
High WBC count (above 10,000)
Acute infections, vigorous exercise, great loss of body fluids
Differential WBC count
Lists percentages of types of leukocytes
May change in particular diseases

28. 14.2 Clinical Application
Leukemia

29. Blood Platelets Platelets are also known as thrombocytes
They are cell fragments of megakaryocytes
They lack a nucleus and are roughly half the size of a RBC
There are approximately 130,000 – 360,000 per cubic millimeter of blood
They help repair damaged blood vessels by sticking to broken surfaces

31. 14.3: Blood Plasma Blood plasma is: Straw colored
The liquid portion of blood
55% of blood volume
92% water
Includes transporting nutrients, gases, and vitamins
Helps regulate fluid and electrolyte balance and maintain pH

32. Plasma Proteins
These are the most abundant dissolved substances (solutes) in plasma

33. Gases and Nutrients The most important blood gases: Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Plasma nutrients include:
Amino acids
Simple sugars
Nucleotides
Lipids
Fats (triglycerides)
Phospholipids
Cholesterol

34. Nonprotein Nitrogenous Substances
These are molecules containing nitrogen but are not proteins
In plasma they include:
Urea – product of protein catabolism; about 50% of nonprotein nitrogenous substances
Uric acid – product of nucleic acid catabolism
Amino acids – product of protein catabolism
Creatine – stores phosphates
Creatinine – product of creatine metabolism
BUN – blood urea nitrogen; indicates health of kidney

35. Plasma Electrolytes
Plasma contains a variety of these ions called electrolytes
They are absorbed from the intestine or released as by-products of cellular metabolism
They include:
Sodium (most abundant with chloride)
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium
Chloride (most abundant with sodium)
Bicarbonate
Phosphate
Sulfate

36. 14.4: Hemostasis Hemostasis refers to the stoppage of bleeding
Actions that limit or prevent blood loss include:
Blood vessel spasm
Platelet plug formation
Blood coagulation

37. Blood Vessel Spasm Blood vessel spasm
Triggered by pain receptors, platelet release, or serotonin
Smooth muscle in blood vessel contracts

38. Platelet Plug Formation
Triggered by exposure of platelets to collagen
Platelets adhere to rough surface to form a plug
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Endothelial lining
Collagen fiber 1
Break in
vessel wall
Platelet
Red blood cell 2
Blood escaping
through break 3
Platelets adhere to each other , to end of broken vessel, and to exposed collagen 4
Platelet plug helps control blood loss

39. Blood Coagulation Blood coagulation
Triggered by cellular damage and blood contact with foreign surfaces
A blood clot forms
This is a:
Hemostatic mechanism
Causes the formation of a blot clot via a series of reactions which activates the next in a cascade
Occurs extrinsically or intrinsically

41. Extrinsic Clotting Mechanism
Chemical outside of blood vessel triggers blood coagulation
Triggered by tissue thromboplastin (factor III) (not found in blood)
A number of events occur that includes factor VII, factor X, factor V, factor IV, and factor II (prothrombin)
Triggered when blood contacts damaged blood vessel walls or tissues
This is an example of a positive feedback mechanism

42. © SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
© SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.

43. Intrinsic Clotting Mechanism
Chemical inside blood triggers blood coagulation
Triggered by Hageman factor XII (found inside blood)
Factor XII activates factor XI which activates IX which joins with factor VIII to activate factor X
Triggered when blood contacts a foreign surface

45. Tissue thromboplastin platelet phospholipids
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Extrinsic Clotting
Mechanism
Intrinsic Clotting
Mechanism
Tissue damage
Blood contacts
foreign surface
Releases
Activates
Tissue thromboplastin
(Factor lll)
Hageman Factor Xll
Activates
(Ca+2)
Activates
Factor Vll
Factor Xl
Activates
(Ca+2)
Activates
Factor X
Factor lX
Activates
Factor Vlll
platelet phospholipids
Factor V
(Ca+2)
Factor X
Activates
(Ca+2)
Activates
Factor V
(Ca+2)
Prothrombin
activator
Converts
Prothrombin
(Factor ll)
Thrombin
(Factor lla)
Converts
Fibrinogen
(Factor l)
Fibrin
Factor Xlll
Stabilizes
Fibrin
clot

46. Fate of Blood Clots
After a blood clot forms it retracts and pulls the edges of a broken blood vessel together while squeezing the fluid serum from the clot
Platelet-derived growth factor stimulates smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts to repair damaged blood vessel walls
Plasmin digests the blood clots
A thrombus is an abnormal blood clot
An embolus is a blood clot moving through the blood vessels

47. © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Al Telser, photographer
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Lumen
Artery wall
Lumen
Plaque
Artery wall
(a)
(b)
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Al Telser, photographer

48. 14.3 Clinical Application
Deep Vein Thrombosis

49. Prevention of Coagulation
The smooth lining of blood vessels discourages the accumulation of platelets and clotting factors
As a clot forms fibrin absorbs thrombin and prevents the clotting reaction from spreading
Anti-thrombin inactivates additional thrombin by binding to it and blocking its action on fibrinogen
Some cells such as basophils and mast cells secrete heparin (an anticoagulant)

51. 14.5: Blood Groups and Transfusions
In 1910, identification of the ABO blood antigen gene explained the observed blood type incompatibilities
Today there are 31 different genes known to contribute to the surface features of RBCs determining compatibility between blood types

52. Antigens and Antibodies
Terms to become familiar with:
Agglutination – clumping of red blood cells in response to a reaction between an antibody and an antigen
Antigens – a chemical that stimulates cells to produce antibodies
Antibodies – a protein that reacts against a specific antigen

53. Red blood cell Anti-B antibody Red blood cell Anti-A antibody
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Red blood cell
Anti-B antibody
Red blood cell
Anti-A antibody
Antigen A
Antigen B
Type A blood
Type B blood
Red blood cell
Anti-A antibody
Anti-B antibody
Antigen A
Antigen B
Red blood cell
Type AB blood
Type O blood

54. Agglutinated red blood cells Red blood cell Antigen A Anti-B antibody
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Agglutinated red
blood cells
Red blood cell
Antigen A
Anti-B antibody
Anti-A antibody
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
c: © G.W. Willis/Visuals Unlimited; figure d: © George W. Wilder/Visuals Unlimited

55. 14.1 From Science to Technology
Blood Typing and Matching: From Serology to DNA Chips

56. ABO Blood Group
Based on the presence or absence of two major antigens on red blood cell membranes
Antigen A
Antigen B

58. Rh Blood Group The Rh blood group was named for the rhesus monkey
The group includes several Rh antigens or factors
Rh positive – presence of antigen D or other Rh antigens on the red blood cell membranes
Rh negative – lack of these antigens
The seriousness of the Rh blood group is evident in a fetus that develops the condition erythroblastosis fetalis or hemolytic disease of the newborn

59. – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – + + – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – + – – – – – – – – – – – + – – + – – – – – – – – – + + – – + – + – – – – + + + – – – – – – – + + + + + – – – – – + + + + + + – – – – – + – + – + – + – – – + – – – – + – – – – – – – –
Rh-negative
woman with
Rh-positive
fetus
Cells from
Rh-positive
fetus enter
woman’s
bloodstream
Woman
becomes
sensitized—
antibodies ( + )
form to fight
Rh-positive
blood cells
In the next
Rh-positive
pregnancy,
maternal
antibodies
attack fetal red
blood cells

60. Important Points in Chapter 14: Outcomes to be Assessed
14.1: Introduction
Describe the general characteristics of blood and discuss its major functions.
Distinguish among the formed elements of blood and the liquid portion of blood.
14.2: Blood Cells
Describe the origin of blood cells.
Explain the significance of red blood cells counts and how they are used to diagnose disease.
Discuss the life cycle of a red blood cell.
Summarize the control of red blood cell production.

61. Important Points in Chapter 14: Outcomes to be Assessed
Distinguish among the five types of white blood cells and give the function(s) of each type.
Describe a blood platelet and explain its functions.
14.3: Blood Plasma
Describe the functions of each of the major components of plasma.
14.4: Hemostasis
Define hemostasis and explain the mechanisms that help to achieve it.
Review the major steps in coagulation.
Explain how to prevent coagulation.

62. Important Points in Chapter 14: Outcomes to be Assessed
14.5: Blood Groups and Transfusions
Explain blood typing and how it is used to avoid adverse reactions following blood transfusions.
Describe how blood reactions may occur between fetal and maternal tissues.

63. Quiz 14
Complete Quiz 14 now!
Read Chapter 15.