1. LEARNING II: INSTRUCTION, PRACTICE, TRANSFER OF TRAINING AND FEEDBACK

2. Learning objectives understand the nature and role of instruction
understand the nature and role of demonstration
understand and classify different types of practice
understand the nature and effect of contextual interference
understand the nature and effect of variability of practice
understand how and why transfer of training works
be able to define and classify feedback
understand the role of feedback in the retention of skills
understand how dynamic systems theory accounts for the effect of practice
understand the implications for coaches and performers

3. Instruction Instruction can be verbal, visual or verbal plus visual
Normally given in the form of explicit rules for execution of the skill
It is not possible to articulate all skills
Analogy can be used as a form of verbal instruction
Often used in implicit learning situations
Visual or demonstration
Must be technically correct
Must be motivational
Possibly activates mirror neurons in the premotor cortex, supplementary motor area and somatosensory cortex
Verbal plus visual
Verbal is used to direct learner’s attention to key points in the demonstration

4. Focus of attention
A form of instruction is to direct the learner’s focus of attention prior to beginning practice
Focus can be external or internal
External focus
Focusing on factors outside of the mind or body
Often factors related to outcome
Internal focus
Focusing on the feel of the movement or
the rules for performing the task
External focus tends to be more advantageous for learning

5. Types of practice Practice can be massed or spaced Massed Spaced
little or no gap between trials
Spaced
when practice is interspersed with rest periods or breaks
Little or no difference in learning resulting from the two types of practice
Boredom or fatigue can set in during massed practice
Following a rest, however, there is no difference when retention tests are conducted

6. Types of practice Whole practice Part-practice
Practising a task in its entirety
Realistic
Motivational
Part-practice
Practising a part of a skill in isolation to the rest of the task
Can be unrealistic
Part-progressive practice
Task is broken down into parts
Individual practises part one, then adds part two, followed by part three and so on
Plateauing can occur when parts are added together
Whole-part-whole practice
Initial whole practice sets the scene for the learner
Part or part-progressive practice is carried out until learner can return to the whole

7. Types of practice Blocked practice Random practice Serial practice
when the learner practises one skill continually with no interference from the performance of other skills
Random practice
the athlete performs two or more skills having random trials on each skill
Serial practice
Learner practises more than one skill and practice is interspersed between the skills but in a serial order
Performance immediately after practice is best following blocked practice but
Following a retention test, serial and random practices produce better results
This is the contextual interference effect
Shea and Morgan’s (1979) theory of elaboration
All of the skills are held in working memory at the same time, thus allowing the learner to compare recall, recognition and sensory consequences of the different skills
Lee and Magill’s (1983) action plan reconstruction theory.
They claimed that during random and serial practice the learner experiences partial or total forgetting of a skill when working on the other skills. On returning to the ‘forgotten’ skill, they have to re-plan the way in which they will perform it, i.e. re-draw their action plan
This aids the development of schemas

8. Types of practice Variable practice
Use of different initial conditions, therefore
different response parameters are necessary, therefore
mistakes will be made which result in
error labelling, which aids
schema formation

9. deliberate practice
It takes 10 years and/or about 10,000 hours undertaking deliberate practice to develop expertise (Ericsson et al., 1993)
Deliberate practice requires time and energy from the learner and
Access to coaches/teachers and training facilities
It is not inherently motivating
This may not apply to sport
Deliberate practice requires effort
Mental and physical

10. Dynamic systems theory and practice
Practice is learning
Coach sets goals
Coach manipulates constraints to aid learning
Constraints can be manipulated in conditioned games
No dribbling in basketball (task constraint)
Aids learning passing and support play
Using a narrow playing area in field hockey (environmental constraint)
Aids players using the full width of the playing area
Players not allowed to call for the ball (organismic constraint) in soccer
Means that players must look up to see where teammates are positioned

11. Transfer of training
The effect that practice on one task has on the learning and/or performance of another task
Can be positive or negative
Practice of one task has a facilitating effect on the learning or performance of another
Practice of one task has an inhibiting effect on the learning or performance of another
Proactive facilitation or inhibition is when practice on a task affects the learning or performance of a subsequent task
Retroactive facilitation or inhibition is when practice of a new task affects the performance of a previously learned or practised task
Intraclass transfer
Transfer between variations of the same task

12. Transfer theorieS Judd’s (1908) general elements (principles) theory
Positive transfer occurs when two tasks require the same or similar general principles
There will be transfer if two tasks use the same neurological pathways
Thorndike’s (1927) identical elements theory
Positive transfer will occur if the purposes of two responses are the same regardless of the nature of the stimulus
Holding (1976)
Positive transfer will occur when a new but similar stimulus requires the use of a well-learned response
This is stimulus generalization
Negative transfer will occur when the same or similar stimulus requires a new and different response
This is response generalization

13. Bilateral transfer
Bilateral transfer refers to transfer from a limb on one side of the body to another limb on the opposite side of the body, normally the contralateral limb
Learning with the contralateral limb will be easier than initial learning
The better the skill level in the ‘original’ limb, the better the transfer
Bilateral transfer is aided by knowledge of the principles involved in the movement
May also be aided by ipsilateral neural pathways
Left side of the brain controls right side of the body and vice versa but some nerves do not cross over, thus forming ipsilateral neural pathways
These send neural messages, albeit weak ones, to the limbs on the same side of the body
These weak traces mean that the person is not starting from scratch when learning with the opposite limb

14. Feedback Feedback is information resulting from an action or response
It can be visual, proprioceptive, vestibular or auditory
Intrinsic or inherent feedback is available to the performer without outside help
Extrinsic or augmented feedback is information that is provided for us by some ‘foreign’ body
There are two major forms of feedback
Knowledge of results
Knowledge of the outcome of the action
Knowledge of performance
Knowledge of the nature of the movement
e.g. feel of the movement

15. MECHANICAL AIDS TO FEEDBACK
Device
Uses
Video and high speed film (with or without automated systems linked to computer)
limb angles;
limb speed;
limb position
Force platforms
contact forces (normally foot-ground contact);
changes in momentum;
velocity
Electromyographs
changes in muscle activity during performance;
muscle force;
muscle fatigue
Isokinetic dynamometry
dynamic movement of a joint during performance;
muscle function; muscle endurance
Electrogoniometry
angular position and displacement of limbs
Accelerators
acceleration of limbs;
acceleration of whole body
MECHANICAL AIDS TO FEEDBACK

16. Timing of feedback repeat skill performance feedback
Feedback delay
Post- feedback delay
Inter-trial interval
Length of feedback delay is of little importance. Interpolated activity can have a negative effect.
Interpolated activity can have a negative effect. If length of delay is too short, the learner does not have time to create a new response.

17. Frequency of feedback Frequency
Absolute frequency is the total number of feedback presentations received by the learner
Relative frequency is the percentage of trials in which feedback is given
100% relative frequency can lead to dependency on the coach
Fading technique
Feedback is given less and less often as the athlete improves
Bandwidth feedback
The coach sets parameters for performance. If performance falls outside of the parameter, feedback is given
If the performer is within the parameter or bandwidth, nothing is said
This kind of feedback has generally, although not unequivocally, been seen to be the most beneficial

18. Precision of feedback Can be too precise or too general
It must be meaningful to the learner
There is an optimal level for each task and performer
Beginners need prescriptive feedback
They need to be told what to do in order to improve performance
Experienced performers need descriptive feedback
They can resolve the problem themselves

19. Practical implications
Deciding on content for the season
Must take into account
Nature of the task
Complexity
Neurophysiological demands
Abilities and skills of learners
Also age, motivation levels
Abilities and skills of the coach

20. Goal setting for the season
Include the learner or learners in the process
Goals then belong to them as much as to the coach
The goals can be group goals or individual goals or both
Goals should be challenging but attainable
Goals need to be both long-term and short-term
Long-term
Can be for the season or several seasons
Short-term should be stepping-stones to the long-term goals
They should be measurable (can be a subjective form of measurement)
They should be flexible
May need to be changed if things are not progressing as planned
Can be outcome goals or performance goals
Performance goals are best suited to beginners

21. The practice session Be aware of the learners’ characteristics
Age - skill level - learning styles – experience – motivation
Be aware of the nature of the task
Complexity – neurophysiologcal factors
Choose the type of practice based on the factors outlined above
Choose types of instruction and feedback based on the factors outlined above