1. What Is Learning?
Learning is a relatively permanent change in human capabilities that is not a result of growth processes.
These capabilities are related to specific learning outcomes.

2. Issues in Learning & Instruction

3. Issues ... Outcomes Conditions Motivation Adult Learning Theory
Individual Differences
Learning Processes

4. Outcomes

5. What is to be Learned?
Gagne’s Instructional Theory of Learning Outcomes
Intellectual skills
Procedural knowledge
Verbal information
Declarative information
Cognitive strategies
Knowing when & how to use 1 & 2 above
Motor skills
Attitudes

6. Learning Outcomes Verbal information Intellectual skills
Includes names or labels, facts, and bodies of knowledge
Includes specialized knowledge employees need in their jobs
Intellectual skills
Include concepts and rules
These are critical to solve problems, serve customers, and create products

7. Learning Outcomes (continued)
Motor skills
Include coordination of physical movements
Attitudes
Combination of beliefs and feeling that pre-dispose a person to behave a certain way
Important work-related attitudes include job satisfaction, commitment to the organization, and job involvement
Cognitive strategies
Regulate the process of learning

8. Domains of Educational Activities
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Cognitive: mental skills (Knowledge)
Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude)
Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (Skills)

9. Cognitive Domain Knowledge: Comprehension: Application: Analysis:
Synthesis:
Evaluation:
The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories, which are listed in order below, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first one must be mastered before the next one can take place.
Knowledge: Recall data or information.
Comprehension: Understand the meaning, translation, interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. State a problem in one's own words.
Application: Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction. Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the work place.
Analysis: Separates material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts and inferences.
Synthesis: Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure.
Evaluation: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials.

10. Affective Domain Receiving Phenomena: Responding to Phenomena:
Valuing:
Organization:
Internalizing values (characterization):
This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories listed the simplest behavior to the most complex:
Receiving Phenomena: Awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention.
Responding to Phenomena: Active participation on the part of the learners. Attends and reacts to a particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation).
Valuing: The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the learner�overt behavior and are often identifiable.
Organization: Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating an unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values.
Internalizing values (characterization): Has a value system that controls their behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional objectives are concerned with the student's general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional).

11. Psychomotor Domain Perception: Set: Guided Response: Mechanism:
Complex Overt Response:
Adaptation:
Origination:
The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor- skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major categories listed the simplest behavior to the most complex:
Perception: The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to translation.
Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a person�response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets).
Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing.
Mechanism: This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency.
Complex Overt Response: The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic performance. For example, players are often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a football, because they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will produce.
Adaptation: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements.
Origination: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.

12. Other Psychomotor Domains -- Dave’s
Imitation:
Manipulation:
Precision:
Articulation:
Naturalization:
Imitation: Observing and patterning behavior after someone else. Performance may be of low quality. Example: Copying a work of art.
Manipulation: Being able to perform certain actions by following instructions and practicing. Example: Creating work on one's own, after taking lessons, or reading about it.
Precision: Refining, becoming more exact. Few errors are apparent. Example: Working and reworking something, so it will be "just right."
Articulation: Coordinating a series of actions, achieving harmony and internal consistency. Example: Producing a video that involves music, drama, color, sound, etc.
Naturalization: Having high level performance become natural, without needing to think much about it. Examples: Michael Jordan playing basketball, Nancy Lopez hitting a golf ball, etc.
Dave, R. H. (1975). Developing and Writing Behavioural
Objectives. (R J Armstrong, ed.) Educational Innovators Press.

13. Other Psychomotor Domains -- Harrow’s
Involuntary movement -
Fundamental movements -
Perception -
Physical abilities -
Skilled movements -
No discursive communication -
Involuntary movement - reaction
Fundamental movements - basic movements
Perception - response to stimuli
Physical abilities - stamina that must be developed for further development
Skilled movements - advanced learned movements
No discursive communication - effective body language
Harrow, A. (1972) A taxonomy of psychomotor domain -- a guide
for developing behavioral objectives. New York: David McKay.

14. Conditions

15. Conditions for Learning
Practice
Learning
Automaticity
Self-regulation
Mental models
Feedback
Meaningfulness
Modeling

16. Practice
Active
Repeated
Spaced, distributed

17. Metacognition
… refers to individual control over one’s thinking

18. 2 Ways Individuals Engage in Metacognition
Monitoring
Identifying problem or task
Evaluating one’s own learning progress
Predicting what will occur as a result of learning
Control
Identifying the specific steps for completing a task or solving a problem
Deciding how quickly or how much attention to devote to the task
Deciding how to prioritize learning

19. Learning
Whole
Part

20. Automaticity Performance that requires limited attention
--> parallel processing, quick, efficient performance
Overlearning
extra learning opportunities even after mastery demonstrated

21. Self-Regulation
Checking one’s own performance

22. Mental Models Organizing material Experts vs. novices Mnemonics
Organizers
advanced
comparative

23. Feedback Knowledge of results Related issues: perception
source credibility
frequency
negative delayed
individual needs

24. Meaningfulness
Linking training to employees’ job experiences and tasks

25. Modeling
Learning by observing and interacting with others

26. What learning condition do you think is most necessary for learning to occur?
Which is least critical?
Why?

27. Conditions Practice Learning Automaticity Self-regulation
Mental models
Feedback
Meaningfulness
Modeling

28. Internal and External Conditions Necessary for Learning Outcomes (1 of 2)
Internal Conditions
External Conditions
Verbal Information
(Labels, facts, and propositions)
Previously learned knowledge and verbal information
Strategies for coding information into memory
Repeated practice
Meaningful chunks
Advance organizers
Recall cues
Intellectual Skills
(Knowing how)
Link between new and previously learned knowledge
Cognitive Strategies
(Process of thinking and learning)
Recall of prerequisites, similar tasks, and strategies
Verbal description of strategy
Strategy demonstration
Practice with feedback
Variety of tasks that provide opportunity to apply strategy

29. Internal and External Conditions Necessary for Learning Outcomes (2 of 2)
Internal Conditions
External Conditions
Attitudes
(Choice of personal action)
Mastery of prerequisites
Identification with model
Cognitive dissonance
Demonstration by a model
Positive learning environment
Strong message from credible source
Reinforcement
Motor Skills
(Muscular actions)
Recall of part skills
Coordination program
Practice
Demonstration
Gradual decrease of external feedback

30. Motivating Learners

31. Factors Determining Performance
Motivation
Knowledge
Skills
Attitudes
Environment
Performance
P = M x KSA x E

32. What Does Motivation DO?
Focuses behavior on goal directed activity.
It determines:
The strength of our response
How much effort we expend, and
How long we persist

33. Factors Influencing Motivation to Learn
Self-efficacy
Benefits/
Consequences
Needs & Goals
Environment
situation constraints
social support
Basic Skills
reading
writing
math
communication
computers

34. Useful Motivation Theories
Goal Setting
Reinforcement
Need
Expectancy
Social (Cognitive) Learning
Information Processing
Self-efficacy

35. Resistance to Learning
Environmental factors
Peer support
Supervisor support
Climate for learning
Transfer back to the job
Individual factors
Cognitive ability
Goal setting
KSA base
Valences
Anxiety
Goal orientation

36. Adult Learning Theory

37. Adult Learning Theory
Adult learning theory was developed out of a need for a specific theory of how adults learn.
It is based on several assumptions:
Adults have the need to know why they are learning something.
Adults have a need to be self-directed.

38. Adult Learning Theory - 2
Assumptions continued:
Adults bring more work-related experiences into the learning situation.
Adults enter into a learning experience with a problem-centered approach to learning.
Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators.

39. Assumptions of Adult Learning Theory
Adults have the need to know why they are learning something.
Immediate application of content
Adults have a need to be self-directed.
Mutual planning and collaboration in instruction
Adults bring more work-related experiences into the learning situation.
Use learner experience as basis for examples and applications
Adults enter into a learning experience with a problem-centered approach to learning.
Instead of subject – centered
Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators.
Develop instruction based on learner’s interests and competencies

40. Individual Differences

41. Learning Styles

42. Learning Styles Diverger Converger Assimilator Accommodator
Concrete experience
Reflective observation
Assimilator
Abstract conceptualization
Converger
Abstract conceptualization
Active experimentation
Accommodator
Concrete experience

43. Learning Styles
Visual
Auditory
Kinesthetic/Tactile

44. The Seven Intelligences Visual - the ability to Physical - the ability
see things
in your mind
Physical - the ability
to use your
body well
Verbal -
the ability to
use words
Musical - the ability
to understand and
use music
Mathematical &
logical - the ability
to apply logic to
systems and
numbers
Interpersonal - the
ability to relate
well to others,
people smarts
Introspective -
the ability
to understand
thoughts and
feelings in
yourself
From Howard Gardner’s
Frames of Mind

45. The Learning Process

46. The Learning Process This material asks three questions:
What are the physical and mental processes involved in learning?
How does learning occur?
Do trainees have different learning styles?

47. Mental and Physical Processes
Expectancy
Gratifying
Perception
Working Storage
LEARNING
Generalizing
Semantic Encoding
Retrieval
Long –Term Storage

48. Implications of the Learning Process for Instruction: (1 of 2)
Employees need to know why they should learn
Employees need meaningful training content
Employees need opportunities to practice
Employees need to commit training content to memory
Employees need feedback

49. Implications of the Learning Process for Instruction: (2 of 2)
Employees learn through:
Observation
Experience
Interacting with others
Employees need the training program to be properly coordinated and arranged

50. Factors Affecting Motivation to Learn and Transfer of Training
Cognitive
Ability
Knowledge
Acquisition
Skill
Acquisition
Self-
Efficacy
Valence of
Outcomes
Motivation to
Learn
Training
Training
Reactions
Transfer
To the Job
Job
Performance
Anxiety
Post-Training
Self-Efficacy
Climate for
Transfer
Supervisor and Peer
Support