2. 3 Understanding Human Development

3. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Objective Distinguish between growth and development. © Vanessa Nel/Shutterstock

4. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Understanding Human Development Growth refers to physical changesGrowth Stages of development are similar for almost everyonedevelopment

5. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. For Discussion What is the difference between growth and development? © Michael D. Brown/Shutterstock

6. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Objective Identify the main types of human development. © spotmatik/Shutterstock

7. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Physical Development Physical development includesPhysical development –gross-motor skills, such as walking and throwinggross-motor skills –fine-motor skills, such as picking up objects and eating with a spoonfine-motor skills

8. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Cognitive Development Cognition involvesCognition –knowing –memorizing –sensing –organizing © StockLite/Shutterstock continued

9. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Cognitive Development Cognitive development is also called intellectual developmentCognitive development Cognitive skills increase gradually over time Connections between brain nerve cells is key to cognitive development Brain connections strengthen with experiences starting in infancy

10. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Social-Emotional Development Social-emotional development includesSocial-emotional development –relationships –feelings –social skills –self-confidence and self-esteem –self-control continued

11. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Social-Emotional Development Challenges increase as development progresses © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock

12. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Objective Develop examples that illustrate principles of development. © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock

13. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Principles of Human Development Development is relatively orderly Developing is a gradual, continual process Development is interrelated Development varies among individuals

14. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Development Is Relatively Orderly Development occurs in a sequence of stepssequence Predictable steps consistently follow one after another Teachers use this knowledge to design appropriate learning strategies for their students’ age

15. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. For Discussion Give examples of how development occurs in predictable steps. © Michael D. Brown/Shutterstock

16. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Development Is a Gradual, Continuous Process Developmental changes happen gradually They become apparent over time © Kharidehal Abhirama Ashwin /Shutterstock

17. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Development Is Interrelated Acquiring new skills requires gains in several areas –Physical development –Cognitive development –Social development –Emotional development

18. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. For Reflection As a teen, in what ways have you developed physically? cognitively? socially? emotionally? © Archipoch/Shutterstock

19. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Development Varies Among Individuals Many factors affect development Each person’s progress is unique –Different rates –Slightly different time schedules

20. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Objectives Define a developmental theory. Apply developmental theories to real-life situations. © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock

21. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Theories of Development Researchers formulate developmental theories bydevelopmental theories –analyzing behavior and development –observing people –performing experiments –considering earlier research studies continued

22. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Theories of Development Developmental theories help teachers –understand what students are capable of and why –get a broader picture than limited experiences and observations provide Many developmental theories exist

23. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Heredity Versus Environment Nature (heredity) versus nurture (environment) © Felix Mizionikov/Shutterstock continued

24. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Heredity Versus Environment Both influence development Researchers question how large a part each plays in development Genes affect –biological factors –intellectual potential –environment a person seeks out continued

25. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Heredity Versus Environment Behaviors involve multiple genes affected by a variety of environmental factors No single gene determines behavior © marema/Shutterstock continued

26. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Heredity Versus Environment Environmental factors include –family—often the greatest effect on development Parenting techniques Stimulating home environment –peers—influence increases in later childhood and adolescence Offer equal status, unlike adult-child relationships continued

27. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Heredity Versus Environment –community—where a person lives can affect behavior and career expectations Relationship with feelings of self-worth Some offer more cultural opportunities –media—often blamed for social problems Also depends on how a person interprets the message Effects may not be immediately apparent continued

28. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Heredity Versus Environment –health—some diseases and illnesses interrupt normal development Availability of health care is also a factor –nutrition and physical activity—can affect physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development

29. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. For Reflection Which do you think has influenced your development more, heredity or environment? © Archipoch/Shutterstock

30. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Behaviorist Theories Behaviorism: behavior determined by forces in the environment beyond individuals’ controlBehaviorism People’s thoughts, feeling, and actions depend on experience rather than genetics or free will Infants are “blank screens”

31. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning—behaviors are associated with responsesClassical conditioning –Pavlov rang bell when feeding dog –Eventually when Pavlov rang bell, dog salivated even if no food was given Classical conditioning may occur without training

32. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning—people repeat behaviors that have positive resultsOperant conditioning Reinforcement should be removed gradually in unpredictable patterns Negative reinforcement (punishment) reduces unwanted behaviors

33. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory People of all ages observe and imitate others’ behavior © Lobke Peers/Shutterstock continued

34. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Reactions to rewards and punishments are filtered by perceptions, thoughts, and motivation Each person’s response is based on personal reactions and the way the individual processes information

35. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Piaget’s Cognitive Theory Four stages of cognitive development At each stage, individuals incorporate what they learn into skills developed in previous stages Children base their thinking on what they learn through their senses continued

36. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Piaget’s Cognitive Theory AgeStageDescription Infancy (Birth to age 2) SensorimotorLearn through senses Toddler (Ages 2 to 7) PreoperationalCommunicate through language Early childhood (Ages 7 to 11) Concrete operationalThink logically, solve problems Adolescence and adulthood (Age 12 and up) Formal operationalThink logically and abstractly, make predictions

37. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Children are social beings Develop through interactions with parents, teachers, other students Social interaction is critical to cognitive development

38. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Eight stages At each stage, people face and must successfully resolve a psychological or social conflict Unsuccessful resolution affects future stages of development continued

39. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Stage/AgeTask InfancyTrust versus mistrust ToddlerAutonomy versus shame and doubt Early childhoodInitiative versus guilt Middle childhoodIndustry versus inferiority AdolescenceIdentity versus role confusion Young adulthoodIntimacy versus isolation Middle adulthoodGenerativity versus self-absorption Older adulthoodIntegrity versus despair

40. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. For Reflection Which of Erikson’s stages have you already successfully completed? How do you know? © Archipoch/Shutterstock

41. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Everyone follows the same progression Not everyone attains the highest level © iQoncept/Shutterstock continued

42. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Preconventional morality—depends on whether behavior will be punished or rewarded Conventional morality—motivated by society’s laws and rules Postconventional morality—decisions based on principles and motivated by integrity continued

43. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Kohlberg observed only men and boys, no females Researchers such as Carol Gilligan believe women use ideas such as caring as a factor in making moral decisions

44. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Objective Analyze how developmental theories impact teaching. © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock

45. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Which Theory Is Correct? Each theory is valid to some extent Some theories may be more sound than others Conflict between theories leads to more valid insights Teachers can benefit from understanding several approaches and applying them in the classroom

46. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. For Discussion Which theory discussed do you think would be most valuable to you as a teacher? Why? © Michael D. Brown/Shutterstock

47. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Key Points Principles of development help in understanding how people change throughout life Researchers form developmental theories based on their observations and experiments Teachers use these theories to help promote their students’ development

48. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Review ____-____ skills depend on the development of small muscles.  Fine-motor Name four basic principles of human development.  Development is relatively orderly; is a gradual, continual process; is interrelated; varies among individuals continued

49. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Review Which behaviorist developed a theory of operant conditioning?  B.F. Skinner What are the four stages of Piaget’s cognitive theory?  sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

50. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. GLOSSARY OF TERMS behaviorism. A theory based on the belief that individuals’ behavior is determined by forces in the environment that are beyond their control. classical conditioning. The theory that behaviors can be associated with responses. cognition. All of the actions or processes involving thought and knowledge.

51. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. GLOSSARY OF TERMS cognitive development. The way people change and improve in their ability to think and learn throughout life. development. The gradual increase in skills and abilities that occurs over a lifetime. developmental theories. Comprehensive explanations, based on research, about why people act and behave the way they do and how they change over time.

52. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. GLOSSARY OF TERMS fine-motor skills. Physical skills involving smaller muscles in the body, such as the hands and wrists. Examples include picking up objects, writing, and keyboarding. gross-motor skills. Physical skills involving larger muscles of the body, such as the legs, hips, back, and arms. Examples include jumping, hitting a baseball, balancing on a balance beam, and carrying a heavy object.

53. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. GLOSSARY OF TERMS growth. Physical changes in size, such as gains in height and weight. operant conditioning. The theory that states that people tend to repeat behaviors that have a positive result or are reinforced. physical development. Advances in physical abilities.

54. Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. GLOSSARY OF TERMS sequence. A consistent step-by-step pattern that consistently follows one after another, as in development. social-emotional development. Development that includes the areas of relationships and feelings.