2. Unit 13 Restriction, Elevation and Degradation of Meaning

3. Restriction of Meaning

4. Examples liquor Old Meaning Specialized meaning liquid alcoholic drink

5. example meat Old MeaningSpecialized Meaning food Flesh of animals

6. word Old meaning Specialization disease discomfort illness poison drink Poisonous drink wifewoman married woman accidenteventunlucky event girlA child A female child

7. word Old meaning Specialization starve die Die of hunger stink Any smell Bad smell successResult a good result corpse a human or animal body living or dead a dead body esp. of a human being

8. 现代英语中把日常生活用语转用 到科技方面，这也是词义缩小的 一种现象。

9. A clean room 和 a white room 均为日常 生活用语，现指用于 精密零件制造的 “ 绝尘 室 ” “A clean room” or “ a white room”,increasingly becomes shop talk. 清洁室或称白室正日益变成专家们 的行话。

10. Elevation of Meaning Words often rise from a humble beginning to a position of greater importance. This change is called elevation of meaning.

11. Pioneer: foot soldier who cleared the way for any army by falling trees, etc. A person who goes before, preparing the way for others, as a scientist doing exploratory work

12. Fond: foolish Tender and affectionate

13. minister Old: an attendant New: a person at the head of a department of a state.

14. marshall Originally: A horse tender Present Meaning: Officer of highest rank

15. craftsman Old: a person good at cheating Now: a man who does a skilled job, usu, with hands

16. shrewd Old meaning: wicked; malicious Now: keen-witted; clever or sharp in practical affairs

17. nimble Old meaning: quick at stealing present meaning: quick of comprehension

18. 见 125 页 Elevation of Meaning

19. Degradation of meaning Words with a commendatory meaning may become ones with a derogatory sense. This is called degradation of meaning or deterioration

20. Four Kinds of Degradation of Meaning A. A word falls into disrepute because of social prejudice

21. Example Villain old meaning:a farmer present Meaning: a man guilty of evil deeds

22. clown Old meaning: a peasant present Meaning: a man who is clumsy and behaves stupidly

23. wench Old meaning: a country girl present meaning: a girl of loose character

24. boor Old meaning: a farmhand present meaning:one who is rough, impolite and clumsy

25. churl Old meaning: a farmhand present meaning: one who is rude and unfriendly

26. B. A word becomes less respectable because of euphemism Examples 见 127 页

27. C. Middle terms which are neutral in meaning and take on favorable or unfavorable meaning according to context Examples 见 128 页

28. Fortune, is a middle term, because it may be either good or bad but the adjective fortunate has a positive value. So with the word luck. The word refers to good or bad luck, especially to good luck. But the adjective lucky only denotes “ having or bringing good luck”.

29. D. Sometimes a word shows deterioration in some of its uses, but maintain itself in others. execute To kill sb. as a lawful punishment To carry out an order, a plan, a piece of work

30. 4-2-3 Semantic Changes from the Literal Use of words to Their Figurative Use 1. Metaphor

31. We know that words are used in two ways: literally and figuratively. When used literally, they have their natural and usual meaning. When used figuratively, they have a suggested meaning. !

32. A simile is a figure of speech which makes a comparison between two unlike elements, having at least one point of resemblance in appearance, quality, action or effect.

33. A metaphor, like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unlike elements, but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated. Metaphor?

34. There are three major groups of metaphors according to function and character: A. Anthropomorphic metaphors B. Animal metaphors C. Synaesthetic metaphors

35. A. Anthropomorphic metaphors Many inanimate objects are compared to the parts of the human body.

36. the eye of a needle 针眼 the eye of a potato 马铃薯的芽眼 the eye of the hurricane 风眼 the eye of a flower 花心 the eye of a peacock’s tail 孔雀翎斑 the eye of the revolution 革命中心

37. 参见 p.32 for More Examples

38. B. Animal metaphors A great many inanimate objects, including various instruments, machines and parts of machines are called after an animal.

39. Cat-o’-nine-tails; 九尾鞭；香蒲 Cat-ice: thin ice unsupported by water 薄冰 Catmint or catnip 猫薄荷 Catlap: slops, tea, etc. 稀薄饮料

40. Another large group of animal names can be transferred into words indicating persons.

41. An ass: a stupid foolish person A pig:a dirty, greedy or ill- mannered person

42. A mouse: a person, esp. A woman, who is quiet and timid A goose: a silly person, esp. female

43. A cat: a nasty person A rat: a low worthless disloyal man A lion: a famous and important person A fox: a person who deceives others by means of clever tricks

44. A tiger: a person like such an animal in fierceness, courage, etc.

45. An owl: a wise-looking dullard. A mule: a stupid or obstinate person

46. A dark horse: a person whose abilities are hidden A mule: a stupid or obstinate person

47. An ape: a person who copies the behaviour of others A monkey: a child who is full of annoying playfulness and trick

48. A parrot: a person who repeats, often without understanding, the words or actions of another

49. C. Synaesthetic metaphors They are metaphors used to refer to direct association between the form and the meaning of language. This type of metaphor is based on the similarity of two things.

50. warm or cold temperature warm or cold voice loud music loud colours

51. sweet tea sweet sound or music piercing wind piercing sound

52. a grave face grave news a stormy day a stormy quarrel

53. stony ground a stony heart dirty hand a dirty night

54. A number of nouns, adjectives, or verbs in English can be used as metaphors.

55. 1) The use of a Noun as a Metaphor: A ray of hope a grain of truth a shadow of doubt a flight of fancy the fire of passion

56. 2) the use of an adjective as a metaphor Bitter enemy murderous heat iron courage

57. 3) the use of a verb as a metaphor: Time flies. Time presses. He bridles his anger.