1. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 The Skeletal System Betty McGuire Cornell University Lecture Presentation

2. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. The Skeletal System  Bone functions  Bone structure  Bone as a living tissue  The role of fibroblasts and osteoblasts in repairing bone fractures  Bone remodeling  Axial skeleton  Appendicular skeleton  Joints

3. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone Functions  The skeleton is a framework of bones and cartilage that performs several functions  Provides support for soft tissues  Provides a place of attachment for muscles  Protects internal organs  Stores minerals and fat  Produces blood cells in the red marrow of certain bones

4. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone Structure  The human body has 206 bones that vary in size and shape  Most bones contain both compact bone and spongy bone in proportions that depend on the bone’s size and shape

5. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone Structure  Compact bone  Dense outer layer with few internal spaces  Forms most of the shaft of long bones  Covered by the periosteum  Membrane that contains blood vessels, nerves, and cells involved in bone growth and repair

6. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone Structure  Spongy bone  Latticework of bone  Found in small, flat bones and in the head and near the ends of the shafts of long bones  In adults  The spaces of some spongy bones are filled with red marrow (generates red blood cells)  The cavity in the shaft of long bones is filled with yellow marrow (a fatty tissue for energy storage)

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13. Bone as a Living Tissue  Osteon  Structural unit of compact bone  Each consists of osteocytes (living bone cells) arranged in concentric rings around a central canal  Each osteocyte lies within a lacuna (small space within the hard matrix)

14. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone as a Living Tissue  Tiny canals connect nearby lacunae and the central canal  Nutrients, oxygen, and wastes pass from cell to cell, traveling to and from the blood vessels in the central canal

15. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone as a Living Tissue  The matrix of bone tissue is  Hard due to calcium and phosphorus salts  Resilient due to strands of the elastic protein collagen

16. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone as a Living Tissue  During development, most of the skeleton is first formed of cartilage  Cartilage cells are capable of dividing (mitosis), unlike mature bone cells, which are enclosed in a solid matrix  The cartilage model can grow as rapidly as the fetus does  Bone eventually replaces the cartilage

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18. Bone as a Living Tissue  The transformation from cartilage to a long bone  Begins when osteoblasts form a collar of bone around the shaft of the cartilage model  Osteoblasts then migrate to the bone cavity to form spongy bone

19. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone as a Living Tissue  The transformation from cartilage to a long bone (cont.)  Cartilage cells within the growth plate divide, forcing the end of the bone farther away from the shaft  As bone replaces the newly formed cartilage in the region closer to the shaft, the bone lengthens  The bone diameter also enlarges as the bone lengthens

20. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone as a Living Tissue  Two regions of cartilage remain at each end of the long bone  The cap that covers the surfaces that rub against other bones  The growth plate, also called the epiphyseal plate

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22. Bone as a Living Tissue Web Activity: Bone Growth

23. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone as a Living Tissue  Hormones and bone growth  Growth hormone stimulates bone growth during childhood  Thyroid hormones ensure that the skeleton grows with the proper proportions  Sex hormones prompt and stop the growth spurt of puberty

24. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone as a Living Tissue  Growth spurt  At puberty, increasing levels of male or female sex hormones initially stimulate cartilage cells to divide, leading to growth  By the end of the teenage years, sex hormones initiate less frequent cell division  Growth plate thins  Ends of the bone fuse with the shaft  Bone can no longer increase in length

25. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. The Role of Fibroblasts and Osteoblasts in Repairing Bone Fractures  When a bone breaks, bleeding occurs and a clot forms  Fibroblasts invade the clot and secrete collagen fibers that form a callus linking the two parts of the bone  Some fibroblasts secrete cartilage into the callus  Osteoblasts transform this cartilage into bone

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27. The Role of Fibroblasts and Osteoblasts in Repairing Bone Fractures Web Activity: Bone Repair

28. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone Remodeling  Bones continually undergo remodeling  New bone is deposited by osteoblasts  Old bone is broken down by osteoclasts  Bone remodeling repairs tiny cracks and regulates blood calcium levels

29. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone Remodeling  Hormones and bone remodeling  Calcitonin  Released from the thyroid gland  Decreases blood calcium levels  Stimulates osteoblasts  Inhibits osteoclasts  Result: calcium moves from blood to bone

30. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone Remodeling  Hormones and bone remodeling (cont.)  Parathyroid hormone (PTH)  Released from the parathyroid glands  Increases blood calcium levels  Stimulates osteoclasts to break down bone  Result: calcium moves from bone to blood

31. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone Remodeling  Hormones and bone remodeling (cont.)  Estrogen in women plays a role  Enhances the absorption of calcium from the digestive system  Stimulates the formation of bone  Inhibits the breakdown of bone  Osteoporosis results when bone is broken down faster than it is deposited

32. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone Remodeling  Bone tissue forms in response to stress on the bone  Bone tissue is absorbed in the absence of stress on the bone

33. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Axial Skeleton  The bones of the human body can be divided into two groups  Axial skeleton  Appendicular skeleton

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37. Axial Skeleton  Axial skeleton  Components  Skull  Vertebral column  Sternum and rib cage  Functions  Protects and supports our internal organs

38. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Axial Skeleton  Skull  Most complex bony structure in the body  Two divisions  Cranium  Face

39. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Axial Skeleton  Cranial bones  Components  Eight flat bones  Functions  Protect the brain  House the structures of hearing  Provide attachment sites for the muscles of the head and neck

40. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Axial Skeleton  Facial bones  Components  Fourteen bones  Functions  Support several sensory structures  Serve as attachment sites for most facial muscles

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45. Axial Skeleton  Fontanels (soft spots)  Membranous areas that connect the bones of the cranium before and shortly after birth  Allow the skull to be compressed during birth as the baby passes through the birth canal  Allow for the rapid growth of the brain during the fetal period and infancy  Replaced by bone by 2 years of age

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47. Axial Skeleton  The vertebral column consists of 26 vertebrae  7 cervical  12 thoracic  5 lumbar  1 sacrum (fusion of 5 sacral vertebrae)  1 coccyx (fusion of 4 vertebrae)

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49. Axial Skeleton  Intervertebral disks  Separate vertebrae from one another  Pads of fibrocartilage  Become compressed over the years and individuals become shorter as they age

50. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Axial Skeleton  Slipped disk  A disk that bulges  If a disk bulges inward, it can press against the spinal cord and interfere with perception of incoming stimuli and muscle control  If a disk bulges outward, it can press against the sciatic nerve and cause the painful inflammatory condition sciatica

51. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Axial Skeleton  Scoliosis  “Twisted disease”  Abnormal curvature of the spine  Cause is unknown  Affects over 1.5 million adolescents, primarily females  Treatment may involve a brace or surgery

52. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Axial Skeleton  Rib cage  12 pairs of ribs attach at the back of the rib cage to the thoracic vertebrae  Upper 10 pairs are attached by cartilage either directly or indirectly to the sternum  Last two pairs do not attach to the sternum and are called “floating ribs”

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54. Appendicular Skeleton  Appendicular skeleton  Components  Pectoral girdle  Pelvic girdle  Limbs  Function  Allows you to move and interact with the environment

55. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Appendicular Skeleton  Pectoral girdle  Components  Scapulae  Clavicles  Function  Supports the arms

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57. Appendicular Skeleton  Pelvic girdle  Components  Two pelvic bones join in front at the pubic symphysis  Function  Supports the legs  More rigid than the pectoral girdle

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59. Joints  Joints are places where bones meet  Classified as  Fibrous  Cartilaginous  Synovial

60. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Joints  Fibrous joints  Held together by fibrous connective tissue  Have no joint cavity  Most do not permit movement  Example: the immovable joints between the skull bones in an adult (sutures)

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64. Joints  Cartilaginous joints  Allow very little movement  Examples:  Between vertebrae  Where ribs attach to the sternum  Pubic symphysis

65. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Joints  Synovial joints  Most joints in the body are of this type  Freely movable

66. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Joints  Synovial joints (cont.)  Common features  The surfaces that move past one another have a thin layer of cartilage  A thin capsule containing synovial fluid (a lubricant) surrounds these joints  The entire joint is reinforced with ligaments, which are straps of connective tissue that hold bones together and direct movement

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70. Joints  Synovial joints differ in the type and range of motion they permit  Hinge joints  Permit motion in only one plane  Example: knee  Ball-and-socket joints  Allow movement in all planes  Example: shoulder

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72. Joints  Damage to joints  Sprains  Injuries to ligaments  Range from slight (caused by overstretching) to serious (caused by tearing)  Example: tearing the anterior cruciate ligament of the knee  Bursitis  Inflammation of the bursae (fluid-filled sacs that surround and cushion joints)  Example: inflammation at the elbow from repeatedly swinging a tennis racket

73. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Joints  Arthritis  Joint inflammation  Types  Osteoarthritis  Degeneration of joint surfaces over time  Rheumatoid  Autoimmune condition marked by an inflammation of the synovial membrane  Damaged joint may need to be replaced with an artificial joint

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