1. Describing Research Activities
Phenomenology
Case Studies
Field Studies
Archival Study
Qualitative Research

2. What are nonexperimental approaches?
Nonexperimental approaches do not create levels of an independent variable nor randomly assign subjects to these levels.
They are used where experiments are not ethical or possible, or where we want to test hypotheses in realistic conditions.
Describing Research Activities

3. What is internal validity?
Internal validity is the degree to which a researcher can establish a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
Describing Research Activities

4. What is internal validity?
An experiment has high internal validity when we can demonstrate that only the antecedent conditions are responsible for group differences in behavior.
An internally valid experiment allows us to draw cause-and-effect conclusions.
Describing Research Activities

5. Describing Research Activities
Why do experiments often achieve higher internal validity than nonexperimental studies?
Laboratory experiments are often higher in internal validity because of their control of extraneous variables.
Researchers create levels of the IV and use procedures like matching and random assignment to conditions.
Describing Research Activities

6. What is external validity?
External validity is the degree to which research findings can be generalized to other settings and individuals.
Describing Research Activities

7. Describing Research Activities
Why might nonexperimental studies achieve higher external validity than laboratory experiments?
Nonexperimental studies are more frequently conducted in real-world settings with a more diverse sample of participants than experiments.
Describing Research Activities

8. What is the degree of manipulation of antecedent conditions?
The degree of manipulation of antecedent conditions concerns assignment of subjects to antecedent conditions created for the experiment.
Describing Research Activities

9. What is the degree of imposition of units?
The degree of imposition of units is how much you limit a subject’s responses on the DV.
Describing Research Activities

10. Explain phenomenology.
Phenomenology involves a subject's description of personal subjective experience.
Phenomenology is low in manipulation of antecedent conditions and low in imposition of units (low-low).
Phenomenology

11. Case Studies What are case studies?
In case studies, a researcher compiles a descriptive study of a subject's experiences, observable behaviors, and archival records kept by an outside observer. Case studies range from low-low to low-high.
Case Studies

12. What are the strengths of the case study approach?
Case studies have several advantages:
source of inferences, hypotheses, and theories
source of therapy techniques
allow study of rare phenomena
Case Studies

13. What are the strengths of the case study approach?
provide exceptions to accepted ideas, theories, and practices
persuasive and motivational value (advertising)
Case Studies

14. What are the limitations of the case study approach?
Case studies have several limitations:
representativeness of sample
completeness of data
reliance on retrospective data
Case Studies

15. How do deviant case analyses extend evaluative case studies?
In a deviant case analysis, researchers examine differences between deviant and normal individuals to identify etiological factors.
This approach may also be applied to nonclinical issues such as social trends and adult morale.
Case Studies

16. What are retrospective data?
Retrospective data are recollections of past events that are collected in the present. While your childhood memories constitute retrospective data, your undergraduate portfolio does not since it was collected in the past.
Case Studies

17. What are the risks of using retrospective data?
This information may be compromised by faulty memory, current mood, and the retrieval cues that are present when you are asked to recall an event.
Case Studies

18. Field Studies What are field studies?
Field studies are nonexperimental studies conducted in the field (real-life settings). The experimenter does not manipulate antecedent conditions. Field studies range from low-low to low-high.
Field Studies

19. What is naturalistic observation?
Naturalistic observation examines subjects’ spontaneous behavior in their actual environments and may obtain more representative behavior than experiments.
This method can achieve high levels of external validity.
Field Studies

20. Explain the problem of reactivity.
In reactivity, subjects alter their behavior when they know that they are being observed.
For example, your baby sister stops saying “Gramma” when you place the phone near her mouth.
Field Studies

21. What is a participant-observer study?
A participant-observer study involves field observation in which the researcher is part of the studied group.
This approach contrasts with naturalistic observation, where the researcher does not interact with research subjects to avoid reactivity.
Field Studies

22. Which ethical problems complicate participant-observer studies?
The main problems are invasion of privacy, not telling people that you are studying their behavior, and pretending to be a group member. Pretending to be a group member (e.g., a researcher pretending to be a weight lifter) is a serious problem that requires careful planning.
Field Studies

23. How do field experiments differ from field studies?
Field experiments are experiments conducted in real-life settings.
Field studies are nonexperimental designs used in real-life settings and include naturalistic observation, unobtrusive measures, participant-observer studies, and surveys.
Field Studies

24. What is an archival study?
An archival study is a descriptive method where researchers reexamine data that were collected for other purposes. For example, universities collect a wealth of data through surveys like the Graduating Senior Questionnaire (GSQ) and interviews.
Archival Study

25. What defines qualitative research?
Qualitative research obtains data consisting of words instead of numbers. This information is obtained through self-reports, personal narratives, and expression of ideas, memories, feelings, and thoughts.
Qualitative Research

26. Why is the rise of qualitative research important?
The increased use of qualitative research may represent a paradigm shift—a change in attitudes, values, beliefs, methods, and procedures accepted during a specific time period.
Qualitative Research

27. How is qualitative research helpful?
Qualitative research is invaluable in studying contextual phenomena, behavior that can only be understood within its context. For example, we might examine the meaning of religious faith for patients facing impending surgery.
Qualitative Research

28. Which information sources does empirical phenomenology use?
Empirical phenomenology might rely on an experimenter’s private experiences or other experiential data:
1. the researcher’s self-reflection on relevant experiences
Qualitative Research

29. Which information sources does empirical phenomenology use?
2. participants’ oral or written descriptions of their experiences
3. accounts from literature, poetry, visual art, television, theatre, and previous phenomenological (and other) research
Qualitative Research