1. AP Psychology Chapter Two Methods of Research

3. How do psychologists collect data about behavior?

4. Clever Hans!

5. Regardless of the method used, all research is based on the Scientific Method of Psychology Regardless of the method used, all research is based on the Scientific Method of Psychology Scientific means systematic, testable, and objective. Scientific means systematic, testable, and objective.

6. What are the three main principles that guide the Scientific Method of Psychology? What are the three main principles that guide the Scientific Method of Psychology?

7. Step 1 – Theory Step 1 – Theory Step 2 – Hypotheses Step 2 – Hypotheses Step 3 – Research and Observation Step 3 – Research and Observation

8. Theories organize known facts and summarizes current research in the field. Theories organize known facts and summarizes current research in the field. Theories are a well- substantiated explanation of existing data. E.g – Low self-esteem leads to depression E.g – Low self-esteem leads to depression

9. A hypothesis is a testable prediction based on what is known or what is “theorized”. A hypothesis is a testable prediction based on what is known or what is “theorized”. They let us reject or revise our theory. They let us reject or revise our theory. I Feel So Dumb I Can’t Do Anything! Eg: People with low self- esteem score higher on a depression scale.

10. Research or observation or experiments are generated to collect data, which then goes into evaluating the hypothesis, which may or may not add to the existing theory. Research or observation or experiments are generated to collect data, which then goes into evaluating the hypothesis, which may or may not add to the existing theory.

11. What are the two broad types of research that psychologists conduct? What are the two broad types of research that psychologists conduct?

12. Research Designs Quantitative and Qualitative Research Quantitative and Qualitative Research

13. Quantitative research emphasizes numbers and statistics and use tools like questionnaires emphasizes numbers and statistics and use tools like questionnaires. It is very objective and all about the numbers and hard data!

14. Qualitative data is in the form of words, pictures or objects and emphasizes observations and narratives Qualitative data is in the form of words, pictures or objects and emphasizes observations and narratives It is much more subjective and results are based on observation and interpretation. It is much more subjective and results are based on observation and interpretation.

15. What are some examples of qualitative research methods? What are some examples of qualitative research methods?

16. Naturalistic Observation

17. Study behavior in its natural context. Spontaneous behavior in a subject’s natural environment. Study behavior in its natural context. Spontaneous behavior in a subject’s natural environment. No interaction with the subject. No interaction with the subject. Is this natural?

18. IE. If you want to study the interactive behavior of a specific breed of gorillas, you would need to go to where the gorillas live in nature (not a zoo). IE. If you want to study the interactive behavior of a specific breed of gorillas, you would need to go to where the gorillas live in nature (not a zoo). You would need to observe them without their knowledge, and without manipulating anything. You would need to observe them without their knowledge, and without manipulating anything.

19. What are some potential problems with this type of research? What are some potential problems with this type of research?

20. Bias Situation in which a factor unfairly increases the likelihood of a researcher reaching a particular conclusion Situation in which a factor unfairly increases the likelihood of a researcher reaching a particular conclusion

21. Example of Bias I am researching teenagers behavior and I was recently mugged by a group of teenagers… am I likely to observe teenage behaviors as being motivated by evil versus good? I am researching teenagers behavior and I was recently mugged by a group of teenagers… am I likely to observe teenage behaviors as being motivated by evil versus good? Why? Why?

22. Case Studies

23. Case Study In depth study of one individual with the hopes of determining universal principles In depth study of one individual with the hopes of determining universal principles

24. Case Study Case studies often include face-to-face interviews, paper and pencil tests, and more. Case studies often include face-to-face interviews, paper and pencil tests, and more. Very open to bias Very open to bias Difficulty of applying data from one person to everyone Difficulty of applying data from one person to everyone

25. IE. I want to know why Bart killed thirty-five people over a twenty-year period of time. I will examine the police files, observe and interview Bart, talk to his and the victims families, etc. IE. I want to know why Bart killed thirty-five people over a twenty-year period of time. I will examine the police files, observe and interview Bart, talk to his and the victims families, etc.

26. Difficulty of applying data from one person to everyone bias, etc What are some potential problems with this type of research? What are some potential problems with this type of research?

27. Surveys

28. Survey Method Research method that relies on self-reports; uses questionnaires, interviews. Research method that relies on self-reports; uses questionnaires, interviews. Usually a very efficient and inexpensive method to collect a lot of information and create basic assumptions about behaviors. Usually a very efficient and inexpensive method to collect a lot of information and create basic assumptions about behaviors.

29. When Creating A Survey Questions need precise answers Questions need precise answers Language and wording must be simple Language and wording must be simple –IE. 77% of New Yorkers where interested in plants and trees, but only 39% where interested in botany; 48% where interested in fossils, but only 39% where interested in paleontology; 42% where interested in rocks and minerals, but 53% where interested in Geology

30. When Creating A Survey Ask questions that won’t embarrass or humiliate Ask questions that won’t embarrass or humiliate Responders will lie if there is a perceived punishment – Anonymity is key Responders will lie if there is a perceived punishment – Anonymity is key Don’t ask morally ambiguous questions – keep it simple and to the point Don’t ask morally ambiguous questions – keep it simple and to the point Who the interviewer is will affect the responders answers Who the interviewer is will affect the responders answers

31. When Creating A Survey Shortly phrased questions. Shortly phrased questions. –IE. As you know, the term Holocaust usually refers to the killing of millions of Jews in Nazi death camps during WWII. Does it seem possible or does it seem impossible to you that the Nazi extermination of the Jew never happened? –1 out of 5 Gallup poll responders said that the Holocaust never happened due to the phrasing of the question

32. When Creating A Survey Hot Topics/Key Words: Hot Topics/Key Words: –IE. Do you favor an amendment prohibiting abortions? 70%

33. When Creating A Survey Limited Answer Options Limited Answer Options Order of Questions – easier to more difficult works best Order of Questions – easier to more difficult works best Fright Terms – avoid using terms with big repercussions Fright Terms – avoid using terms with big repercussions –IE. Use Problem V. Crisis, Past V. Dead, Dealt With V. Punish –Use a RANDOM SAMPLE (more on that later…)

34. False Consensus Effect Skews the reports by jumping to large conclusions that fit into our pre- conceived ideas. Skews the reports by jumping to large conclusions that fit into our pre- conceived ideas. Tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors. Tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.

35. Correlation

36. What would a critical thinker say about this headline? What would a critical thinker say about this headline?

37. Correlational Study Research study designed to determine the degree to which two variables are related to one another Research study designed to determine the degree to which two variables are related to one another

38. IE. What is the relationship between exercise and weight? Smoking and cancer? Brain size and intelligence? Education and level of income? IE. What is the relationship between exercise and weight? Smoking and cancer? Brain size and intelligence? Education and level of income?

39. Is there a correlation?

40. What are some potential problems with this type of research? What are some potential problems with this type of research?

41. Watch out for Watch out for illusory correlations! Does sugar make kids more hyper? Does sugar make kids more hyper? Does a full moon make people act crazier? Does a full moon make people act crazier? Does going outside with no coat on mean you will catch a cold? Does going outside with no coat on mean you will catch a cold?

42. Which is the more likely hand?

43. Which is a more likely hand? 1 in 2,598,960

44. Which is the more likely hand? 1 in 2,598,960 We often perceive order in random events!

45. Correlational Study Correlation studies DO NOT prove causation. They can only suggest that there is or is not a relationship between the two variables. Correlation studies DO NOT prove causation. They can only suggest that there is or is not a relationship between the two variables.

46. IE. IE. – A correlation study may suggest that people who earn higher levels of education generally earn higher salaries, but it can’t definitively say that getting a degree will get you a higher paying job.

47. IE. Student scores on the SAT are collected, as are senior year GPA’s. IE. Student scores on the SAT are collected, as are senior year GPA’s. We want to see if a high GPA correlates to a high SAT score. We want to see if a high GPA correlates to a high SAT score. We can’t say one causes the other, but we can imply that students who have high/low GPA’s score high/low on SAT’s. We can’t say one causes the other, but we can imply that students who have high/low GPA’s score high/low on SAT’s. Can we use GPA as a predictor of SAT performance?

48. But Remember…. Correlation Does Not Imply Causation!

49. Graphing Correlation Relationships

50. After you plot the data the slope (direction) of the line indicates whether or not there is a positive, negative, or no relationship between variables. After you plot the data the slope (direction) of the line indicates whether or not there is a positive, negative, or no relationship between variables. How close the dots are together indicates how close the relationship between the variables is. How close the dots are together indicates how close the relationship between the variables is.

51. Positive Correlation As the value of one variable increases (or decreases) so does the value of the other variable. As the value of one variable increases (or decreases) so does the value of the other variable.

52. Studying and Grades Studying and Grades –As students study more, their grades increase. Practice and Athletics Practice and Athletics –As athletes practice more, their batting averages increase Dieting and Weight Loss Dieting and Weight Loss –As dieters ate less, their weight dropped.

55. Negative Correlation As the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable decreases. As the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable decreases. –The more you exercise, the less you weigh –The more you study, the less your teachers yell at you

58. Zero Correlation There is no relationship whatsoever between the two variables. There is no relationship whatsoever between the two variables. –The length of your hair has no influence on your level of intelligence.

61. Correlational Study Important NOT to imply a cause and effect relationship between the variables Important NOT to imply a cause and effect relationship between the variables Correlational study does not determine why the two variables are related--just that they are related. Correlational study does not determine why the two variables are related--just that they are related. Correlational studies are helpful in making predictions. Correlational studies are helpful in making predictions.

62. Positive, Negative or Zero Correlation? Happy students have higher GPAs Happy students have higher GPAs Living together leads to Divorce Living together leads to Divorce Eating oatmeal causes Cancer Eating oatmeal causes Cancer The hotter the temperature, the less clothing you wear The hotter the temperature, the less clothing you wear

63. Experiment

64. Experiment An investigation seeking to understand relations of cause and effect.

65. The experimenter changes a variable (cause), which in turn changes another variable (effect). At the same time the experimenter hopes to hold all of the other variables constant

66. IE. I want to know if new drug A will help to alleviate the symptoms of insomnia. IE. I want to know if new drug A will help to alleviate the symptoms of insomnia. Patients will be given different doses at different times to see what works and what doesn’t. Patients will be given different doses at different times to see what works and what doesn’t. I need to control other factors, like mattress softness and room temperature, to eliminate them as causes of sleep deprivation. I need to control other factors, like mattress softness and room temperature, to eliminate them as causes of sleep deprivation.

67. How do I create a valid and reliable experiment? How do I create a valid and reliable experiment?

68. Step 1: Choose a Hypothesis A hypothesis expresses a relationship between two variables. (it’s a testable prediction – remember?) A hypothesis expresses a relationship between two variables. (it’s a testable prediction – remember?) IE. My hypothesis is that watching violent television programs makes people more aggressive. IE. My hypothesis is that watching violent television programs makes people more aggressive.

69. Step Two: Choose Variables Variables are things that are measured, controlled, or manipulated in research. Variables are things that are measured, controlled, or manipulated in research. Type of television program, violent behavior, environment, participants, etc…

70. The independent variable is the manipulated variable. The independent variable is the manipulated variable. IE. The type of TV program viewed is the independent variable because I can adjust what shows are viewed, for how long, by whom, etc. IE. The type of TV program viewed is the independent variable because I can adjust what shows are viewed, for how long, by whom, etc.

71. IE. Measuring the change in aggression levels is the dependent variable in our experiment because it changes based on what is viewed, for how long, etc. IE. Measuring the change in aggression levels is the dependent variable in our experiment because it changes based on what is viewed, for how long, etc. The dependent variable is measured for change. The dependent variable is measured for change.

72. Step Three: Operationalize When you operationalize your variables, you are defining them and explaining how you will measure them. When you operationalize your variables, you are defining them and explaining how you will measure them.

73. IE. The operational definition of the independent variable (what defines a violent show?) scenes of fighting, bloodshed, use of weapons, etc IE. The operational definition of the dependent variable (what defines an increase in aggressive behavior?) might be: threats of bodily harm, kicks, punches, throwing objects (must be specific!)

74. Step Four: Identify Potential Extraneous Variables/Confounding Variables Any factor or variable that might have an effect (or potential affects) other than the variable being studied is considered an extraneous variable and must be eliminated or accounted for… Any factor or variable that might have an effect (or potential affects) other than the variable being studied is considered an extraneous variable and must be eliminated or accounted for…

75. IE. An extraneous variable in our experiment would be a phone call from a solicitor during a program, IE. An extraneous variable in our experiment would be a phone call from a solicitor during a program, a viewer stubbing their toe during a show, alcohol abuse, etc. a viewer stubbing their toe during a show, alcohol abuse, etc. All of these could increase aggressiveness, but are not related to viewing violent television. All of these could increase aggressiveness, but are not related to viewing violent television.

76. Step Five: Identify Who You Will Be Testing The individuals on which the research will be conducted are called subjects (or participants). The individuals on which the research will be conducted are called subjects (or participants). A small group of subjects are drawn from a larger potential population. A small group of subjects are drawn from a larger potential population. IE. Our subjects will be drawn from the overall population of 12 th grade males at Appo. High School.

77. Step Six: How Do We Decide Who Will Be Subjects, and Who Won’t? Since we can’t realistically test all 12 th grade males at Appo. High School, we have to create a representative sample of the population so that we can generalize our findings to the whole group. Since we can’t realistically test all 12 th grade males at Appo. High School, we have to create a representative sample of the population so that we can generalize our findings to the whole group.

78. Many Options! Rigorous Control Design Designing an experiment with specific, hand- picked groups in mind. Designing an experiment with specific, hand- picked groups in mind. IE. Only testing males, 18 years old, in AP Psychology. IE. Only testing males, 18 years old, in AP Psychology. Sample Design A sample is a representation of the entire population. A sample is a representation of the entire population. A random sample allows that every member of an overall population has an equal chance to be in the sample. A random sample allows that every member of an overall population has an equal chance to be in the sample. IE. Drawing names from a hat. IE. Drawing names from a hat.

79. Stratified Sample Subdivide the population into at least two different subpopulations that share the same characteristics, then draw a random sample from each group. Subdivide the population into at least two different subpopulations that share the same characteristics, then draw a random sample from each group. IE. 8 random men and 8 random women IE. 8 random men and 8 random women Systematic Sample Select a starting point from your population and then select every ?th participant. Select a starting point from your population and then select every ?th participant. IE. choose every 100 th name on a list. IE. choose every 100 th name on a list.

80. Cluster Sample Divide your population into multiple subgroups, randomly choose a subgroup to test, and then test the entire population of that subgroup. Divide your population into multiple subgroups, randomly choose a subgroup to test, and then test the entire population of that subgroup. IE. Choose a grade level (like the Juniors) and test all of them IE. Choose a grade level (like the Juniors) and test all of them Convenience Sample IE. Like your friends or family IE. Like your friends or family Use a population that is readily available Use a population that is readily available

81. Step Seven: Assignment Once you have chosen your subjects to study, you must assign them to one of two groups; those that will be “manipulated”, and those that won’t. Once you have chosen your subjects to study, you must assign them to one of two groups; those that will be “manipulated”, and those that won’t.

82. Group 1: Experimental Group The experimental group receives the independent variable and is manipulated throughout the experiment. The experimental group receives the independent variable and is manipulated throughout the experiment.

83. IE. In our television violence experiment, those in the experiment group will watch varying degrees of violent program, for varying lengths of time, etc., and their changes in levels of aggression measured. IE. In our television violence experiment, those in the experiment group will watch varying degrees of violent program, for varying lengths of time, etc., and their changes in levels of aggression measured.

84. Group 2: Control Group The control group does not receive the independent variable. The control group does not receive the independent variable.

85. IE. In our television violence experiment, the control group will be shown a variety of non-violent programming in order to create a baseline to compare the experiment group against. IE. In our television violence experiment, the control group will be shown a variety of non-violent programming in order to create a baseline to compare the experiment group against.

86. Placebo A non-active substance or condition administered instead of a drug or active agent A non-active substance or condition administered instead of a drug or active agent Given to the control group Given to the control group Sugar pill in the test made Sugar pill in the test made to look like the SmartPill ™ to look like the SmartPill ™

87. How Do We Choose Our Subjects? Method 1: Random Assignment Random assignment (don’t confuse with random sample) means that the subjects have an equal chance of being placed into each group. If we allow subjects to choose their own group, we may have a subject- relevant confounding variable. Random assignment (don’t confuse with random sample) means that the subjects have an equal chance of being placed into each group. If we allow subjects to choose their own group, we may have a subject- relevant confounding variable.

88. Subject-Relevant Confounding Variables A subject-relevant confounding variable would allow those people that liked violent movies or were prone to violence already to choose to be in the experimental group. A subject-relevant confounding variable would allow those people that liked violent movies or were prone to violence already to choose to be in the experimental group. What’s wrong with that? What’s wrong with that?

89. Blind procedure To help avoid this confounding variable, we prescribe a single-blind design. The subjects are “blind” to whether they have been randomly placed in the control or experiment group. To help avoid this confounding variable, we prescribe a single-blind design. The subjects are “blind” to whether they have been randomly placed in the control or experiment group. The researcher would know who is getting the SmartPill ™ but not the participant The researcher would know who is getting the SmartPill ™ but not the participant

90. Double Blind Procedure An experimental procedure where both the research participants and those collecting the data are ignorant (blind) to the expected outcome of the experiment An experimental procedure where both the research participants and those collecting the data are ignorant (blind) to the expected outcome of the experiment (the people handing out the pills nor the people taking the pills know who actually got the SmartPill ™

91. Method 2: Group Matching When assigning members to the experiment or control group, it is important that the characteristics of both groups need to be as similar as possible. When assigning members to the experiment or control group, it is important that the characteristics of both groups need to be as similar as possible.

92. IE. After rigorously or randomly determining our subjects, as many white, black, tall, short, overweight, slim members should be in the control group as there are in the experiment group. IE. After rigorously or randomly determining our subjects, as many white, black, tall, short, overweight, slim members should be in the control group as there are in the experiment group.

93. Was the experiment reliable? (did you get the results you expected; consistent results) Was it Valid? (did it test what it was supposed to test) Can the experiment be replicated? (can someone else conduct the same experiment and get similar results? Was the experiment a success?

94. REMEMBER !!! Only experimental data can conclusively demonstrate causal relations between variables (A causes B to happen). Only experimental data can conclusively demonstrate causal relations between variables (A causes B to happen).

95. Step Eight: Address Other Potential Issues With Experiments Situation-relevant confounding variables refer to making sure that the situations that the experiment and control groups are placed in are exactly the same. We must have equivalent environments. Situation-relevant confounding variables refer to making sure that the situations that the experiment and control groups are placed in are exactly the same. We must have equivalent environments. IE. We cannot have those watching violent films in a large auditorium, and those viewing sitcoms in a small living room. IE. We cannot have those watching violent films in a large auditorium, and those viewing sitcoms in a small living room.

96. Experimenter Bias Experimenter Bias occurs when the experimenter unconsciously treats members of the control and experiment groups differently, which increases the chances of confirming their hypothesis. Experimenter Bias occurs when the experimenter unconsciously treats members of the control and experiment groups differently, which increases the chances of confirming their hypothesis. IE. The experimenter gives soda to the control group, and beer to the violent viewers. The experimenter speaks more abruptly with the violence crowd (inciting them?). IE. The experimenter gives soda to the control group, and beer to the violent viewers. The experimenter speaks more abruptly with the violence crowd (inciting them?).

97. The Hawthorne Effect refers to the fact that some subjects will alter their behaviors simply because they know that they are part of an experiment, regardless of what is being done to them. The Hawthorne Effect refers to the fact that some subjects will alter their behaviors simply because they know that they are part of an experiment, regardless of what is being done to them.

98. The Placebo Effect refers to the phenomenon that a patient's symptoms can be alleviated by an otherwise ineffective treatment, apparently because the individual expects or believes that it will work. The Placebo Effect refers to the phenomenon that a patient's symptoms can be alleviated by an otherwise ineffective treatment, apparently because the individual expects or believes that it will work.

99. Hindsight Bias is the tendency to believe, once the outcome is already known of course, that you would have foreseen it…that even though it's over and you know the outcome, YOU KNEW IT ALL ALONG… Hindsight Bias is the tendency to believe, once the outcome is already known of course, that you would have foreseen it…that even though it's over and you know the outcome, YOU KNEW IT ALL ALONG…

100. He’s awesome! An MVP!

101. I KNEW he was on steroids….how else could he have hit that many homeruns!

102. Overconfidence occurs when we tend to think that we know more than we do. Make over- generalizations when reporting results, forcing results into preconceived hypothesis to say “I told you so”, instead of letting the results speak for themselves, etc. Overconfidence occurs when we tend to think that we know more than we do. Make over- generalizations when reporting results, forcing results into preconceived hypothesis to say “I told you so”, instead of letting the results speak for themselves, etc.

103. Researcher Bias The tendency to notice evidence which supports one particular point of view or hypothesis The tendency to notice evidence which supports one particular point of view or hypothesis

104. Example of Researcher Bias If my hypothesis is that excessive sugar intake causes poor test performance, I will readily conclude this as fact when three students who failed the test were observed drinking a soda prior to the test. Other students who failed and other factors are ignored. If my hypothesis is that excessive sugar intake causes poor test performance, I will readily conclude this as fact when three students who failed the test were observed drinking a soda prior to the test. Other students who failed and other factors are ignored.

105. Participant Bias Tendency of research subjects to respond in certain ways because they know they are being observed. The subjects might try to behave in ways they believe the researcher wants them to behave. Tendency of research subjects to respond in certain ways because they know they are being observed. The subjects might try to behave in ways they believe the researcher wants them to behave.

106. Once I have completed my research, how do I present my findings ? Once I have completed my research, how do I present my findings ?