1. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 1 15—Families Family Processes Parenting Families and Adolescents Siblings The Changing Family in a Changing Social WorldThe Changing Family in a Changing Social World Summary

2. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 2 Family Processes –Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory analyzes the social contexts of development in terms of five environmental systems: Microsystem: The setting in which the individual lives. Mesosystem: The links between microsystems. Exosystem: Influences from another setting. Macrosystem: Culture in which the individual lives. Chronosystem: Sociohistorical circumstances.

3. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 3 Family Processes Interactions in the Family System –Every family is a system, a complex whole made up of interrelated and interacting parts that can involve: Mutual synchrony: Each person’s behavior depends on the partner’s previous behavior (e.g., mutual gazing). Reciprocal interactions: The actions of the partners can be matched (e.g., one partner imitates the other). Scaffolding: Adjusting the level of guidance to fit the child’s performance.

4. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 4 Family Processes Interactions in the Family System –Reciprocal socialization: Socialization that is bidirectional with children socializing parents as parents socialize children. Dyadic (two-person) and polyadic (more than two people) systems interact and influence each other. Promoting marital satisfaction often leads to good parenting.

5. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 5 Family Processes Interaction between Children and Their Parents: Direct and Indirect Effects Refer to Figure 15.1

6. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 6 Family Processes Cognition and Emotion in Family Processes –The role of cognition in family socialization comes in many forms, e.g., parents’ cognitions, beliefs, and values about their parental role; how parents perceive, organize, and understand the children's behaviors and beliefs. –Children’s social competence is linked to their parents’ emotional lives. –Parental support and acceptance of children’s emotions is related to children’s ability to manage emotions positively.

7. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 7 Family Processes The Developmental Construction of Relationships –Developmental Construction Views Views sharing the belief that as individuals grow up, they acquire modes of relating to others. There are two main variations of this view. One emphasizes continuity and stability in relationships throughout the life span; the other emphasizes discontinuity and changes in relationships throughout the life span.

8. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 8 Family Processes The Developmental Construction of Relationships (continued) –The Continuity View A developmental view that emphasizes the role of early parent-child relationships in constructing a basic way of relating to people. –The Discontinuity View A developmental view that emphasizes change and growth in relationships over time.

9. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 9 Family Processes Sociocultural and Historical Changes –Family changes may be due to great upheavals in a nation, or they may be due more to subtle transitions in ways of life.

10. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 10 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1 Discuss family processes –Review How can the family be viewed as a system? What is reciprocal socialization? What roles do cognition and emotion play in family relationships? What are the two versions of the developmental construction of relationships? What are some sociocultural and historical changes that have influenced the family?

11. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 11 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1 –Reflect What do you predict will be some major changes in families by the end of the twenty-first century?

12. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 12 Parenting The Parental Role –The parental role may be well planned and coordinated with other roles in life, or a startling surprise; either way, prospective parents may have mixed emotions and many misperceptions about having a child. –Parents manage their children’s lives, with the managerial role changing as the child matures. Mothers are more likely than fathers to be managers. Parents regulate children’s opportunities for social contact. Parents monitor children’s activities and friends.

13. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 13 Parenting Adapting Parenting to Developmental Changes in the Child –In the first year, parent-child interaction moves from focus on routine caretaking to activities such as play and visual-vocal exchanges. –During the second and third years, parents handle disciplinary matters, and as the child grows older, parents turn from physical manipulation to reasoning, moral exhortation, and giving or withholding privileges.

14. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 14 Parenting Adapting Parenting to Developmental Changes in the Child (continued) –During early childhood the focus is on modesty, bedtime regularities, temper control, sibling/peer relationships, eating behavior and manners, autonomy in dressing, and attention seeking. –During middle and late childhood, parents spend less time with their children, who are learning to relate to adults outside the family; discipline is easier and control is gradually transferred to the children (coregulation).

15. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 15 Parenting Adapting Parenting to Developmental Changes in the Child (continued) –By adolescence, reasoning is more sophisticated and adolescents push for more independence, which contributes to parenting difficulties.

16. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 16 Parenting Parenting Styles –Authoritarian parenting This is a restrictive, punitive style in which parents force the child to follow the parents’ directions and to respect their work and effort. Firm limits and controls are placed on the child, and little verbal exchange is allowed. This style is associated with children’s socially incompetent behavior and aggressive behavior.

17. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 17 Parenting Parenting Styles (continued) –Authoritative parenting This style encourages children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions. Extensive verbal give and take is allowed, and parents are warm and nurturant toward the child. This style is associated with children’s socially competent behavior.

18. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 18 Parenting Parenting Styles (continued) –Neglectful parenting A style in which the parent is uninvolved in the child’s life. It is associated with children’s social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control. –Indulgent parenting A style in which parents are highly involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them. This is associated with children’s social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control.

19. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 19 Parenting Parenting Styles (continued) –Authoritative parenting is likely to be the most effective style. Authoritative parents establish an appropriate balance between control and autonomy. Authoritative parents are more likely to engage children in verbal give-and-take and allow children to express their views, a skill necessary for social competence. Their warmth and involvement make the children more receptive to parental influence.

20. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 20 Parenting Parenting Styles and Ethnicity –Authoritative parenting is linked with children’s competence across a wide range of ethnic groups, social strata, cultures, and family structures. –Elements of the authoritarian style may take on different meanings and have different effects depending on context: Asian-American parents exert considerable control; however, the control is seen as a type of training. Latino children reared with an emphasis on respect and obedience develop a self and identity that is embedded in the family.

21. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 21 Parenting Classification of Parenting Styles Refer to Figure 15.2

22. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 22 Parenting Parenting Styles and Ethnicity (continued) –Punishment may also have varying effects in different contexts. Physical punishment is linked with increased externalized problems in non-Latino white families but not African American families, where requiring obedience to parental authority may keep children from engaging in antisocial behavior that can have serious consequences.

23. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 23 Parenting Punishment –Although a large majority of parents in the U.S. and Canada express favorable attitudes toward corporal punishment, research suggests that it is associated with: Higher levels of immediate compliance and aggression by children. Lower levels of moral internalization and mental health. Behavioral problems in middle and late childhood.

24. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 24 Parenting Punishment (continued) –Reasons to avoid corporal punishment: Children imitate aggressive behavior. Punishment can instill fear, rage, or avoidance. Punishment tells children what not to do rather than what to do. Punishment can be abusive. –Since a law passed in Sweden in 1979 forbidding parents from physically punishment children, youth rates of delinquency, alcohol abuse, rape, and suicide have dropped.

25. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 25 Parenting Punishment (continued) –Most child psychologists recommend reasoning with children, especially explaining the consequences of the child’s actions for others, as the best way to handle children’s misbehaviors. Time out can also be effective.

26. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 26 Parenting Child Maltreatment –In 2002, approximately 896,000 children were found to be victims of child abuse, and 85% were abused by parents. –The public and many professionals use the term “child abuse” to refer to both abuse and neglect; developmentalists use “child maltreatment” to eliminate the emotional impact of the term and acknowledge that it includes diverse conditions.

27. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 27 Parenting Child Maltreatment (continued) –Types of Child Maltreatment Physical abuse Child neglect Sexual abuse Emotional abuse

28. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 28 Parenting Child Maltreatment (continued) –The Context of Abuse A combination of factors, including culture, family, and development, contribute to child maltreatment. The extensive violence that takes place in the American culture is reflected in the occurrence of violence in the family (Azar, 2002). Family influences: The interactions of all family members need to be considered, regardless of who actually performs the violent acts against the child (Kim & Cicchetti, 2004; Margolin, 1994).

29. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 29 Parenting Child Maltreatment (continued) –Developmental Consequences of Abuse Among the consequences of child maltreatment are poor emotional regulation, attachment problems, problems in peer relations, difficulty in adapting to school, and other psychological problems (Azar, 2002; Cicchetti & Toth, 2005). Physical abuse is linked with children’s anxiety, personality problems, depression, suicide attempts, conduct disorder, and delinquency; later in life it is linked with relationship problems.

30. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 30 Parenting Parenting Takes Time and Effort –Parents who do not spend enough time with their children or who have problems in child rearing can benefit from counseling and therapy.

31. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 31 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2 Explain how parenting is linked to children’s development –Review What are some dimensions of the parental role? How can parenting be adapted to the developmental changes in the child? What are the four main styles of parenting? How are they linked to children’s development?

32. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 32 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2 –Review (continued) How does punishment affect children? What are some factors involved in child maltreatment? What are the developmental outcomes of child maltreatment? How does effective parenting involve time and effort?

33. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 33 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2 –Reflect In our discussion of parenting, authoritative parenting was associated with children’s social competence. In some cases, though, a child’s parents differ in their parenting styles. Consider all four parenting styles—authoritarian, authoritative, neglectful, and indulgent—on the parts of the mother and father.

34. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 34 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2 –Reflect (continued) A best case is when both parents are authoritative. What might be the effects on the child when one parent uses one style and the other parent uses a different style? Also, consider what style or styles of parenting your mother and father used in rearing you. What effects do you think their parenting style(s) had on your development?

35. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 35 Families and Adolescents Autonomy –Boys are given more independence than girls, especially in families with a traditional gender-role orientation. –The ability to attain autonomy and gain control over one’s behavior in adolescence is acquired through appropriate adult reactions to the adolescent’s desire for control. –Parents who play an active role in monitoring and guiding their adolescents’ development were more likely to have adolescents with positive peer relations and lower drug use than parents with a less active role.

36. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 36 Families and Adolescents Attachment –Despite their desire for autonomy, most adolescents continue to be attached to their parents. –Secure attachment in adolescence may facilitate social competence and well-being, and result in a lower probability of engaging in problem behaviors. –Dismissing/avoidant attachment is an insecure category in which individuals de-emphasize the importance of attachment. This category is associated with consistent experiences of rejection of attachment needs by caregivers.

37. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 37 Families and Adolescents Attachment (continued) –Preoccupied/ambivalent attachment is an insecure attachment category in which adolescents are hypertuned to attachment experiences. This is thought to occur mainly because parents are inconsistently available to the adolescent. –Unresolved/disorganized attachment is an insecure category in which the adolescent has an unusually high level of fear and is disoriented. This may result from such traumatic experiences as a parent’s death or abuse by parents.

38. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 38 Families and Adolescents Parent-Adolescent Conflict –The increase in parent-adolescent conflict may be due to: The biological changes of puberty. Cognitive changes involving increased idealism and logical reasoning. Social changes focused on independence and identity. Maturational changes in parents. Expectations that are violated by parents and adolescents.

39. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 39 Families and Adolescents Parent-Adolescent Conflict (continued) –Usually conflict between adolescents and their parents does not escalate to tumultuous proportions. –Much conflict involves such everyday events of family life as keeping a bedroom clean, dressing neatly, getting home by a certain time, and not talking forever on the phone. –The everyday conflicts that characterize parent- adolescent relationships may actually serve a positive developmental function.

40. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 40 Families and Adolescents Parent-Adolescent Conflict (continued) –The old model of parent-adolescent relationships suggested that as adolescents mature they detach themselves from parents and move into a world of autonomy apart from parents. –The new model emphasizes that parents serve as important attachment figures and support systems as adolescents explore a wider, more complex social world.

41. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 41 Families and Adolescents Old and New Models of Parent-Adolescent Relationships Refer to Figure 15.3

42. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 42 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 3 Summarize the changes in families with adolescents –Review What role does autonomy play in parent-adolescent relationships? What role does attachment play in parent-adolescent relationships? How extensive is parent-adolescent conflict? How does parent-adolescent conflict affect adolescent development?

43. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 43 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 3 –Reflect What was the nature of your relationship with your parents during middle school and high school? Has your relationship with your parents changed since then? Does it involve less conflict? What do you think are the most important characteristics of a competent parent of adolescents?

44. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 44 Siblings Sibling Relationships –Children’s sibling relationships include helping, sharing, teaching, fighting, and playing. –A combination of ineffective parenting and sibling conflict at ages 10 to 12 is linked to antisocial behavior and poor peer relations in adolescence. –Children interact more positively and in more varied ways with their parents than with their siblings, although siblings may be stronger socializing influences on the child than parents are.

45. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 45 Siblings Sibling Relationships (continued) –In dealing with peers, coping with difficult teachers, and discussing such taboo subjects as sex, siblings may be more influential than parents in the socialization process. –Aggression and dominance occur more in same-sex sibling relationships than opposite- sex sibling relationships.

46. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 46 Siblings Birth Order –The oldest sibling is more dominant, competent, and powerful than younger siblings; they are more antagonistic and more nurturant toward younger siblings than vice versa. –First-born children are more adult-oriented, helpful, conforming, anxious, and self-controlled; they excel in academic and professional endeavors and also have more guilt, anxiety, and difficulty coping with stressful situations.

47. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 47 Siblings Birth Order (continued) –Only children often are achievement-oriented and display a desirable personality. –Critics suggest that birth-order effects are overemphasized and that when these effects are found, they usually are explained by variations in interactions with parents and siblings associated with the unique experiences of being in a particular position in the family.

48. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 48 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 4 Identify how siblings influence children’s development –Review How can sibling relationships be characterized? What role does birth order play in children’s development?

49. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 49 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 4 –Reflect If you grew up with a sibling, you likely showed some jealousy of your sibling and vice versa. What can parents do to help children reduce their jealousy toward a sibling?

50. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 50 The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Working Parents –Although maternal employment is part of modern life, it is not certain that children with mothers working outside of the home actually receive less attention than children whose mothers are not employed. –It may be easier for working parents than for non- working parents to encourage the increasing independence that growing children need. –However, when a mother works during the child's first year of life, it can have a negative effect on the child’s later development.

51. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 51 The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Working Parents (continued) –Latchkey children are given the key to their home, take the key to school, then use it to let themselves into the home while their parents are still at work. They are unsupervised for long periods of time. Although vulnerable to problems, their experiences vary enormously—parental monitoring and authoritative parenting help the children cope more effectively with latchkey experiences.

52. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 52 The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Single-Parent Families in Different Countries Refer to Figure 15.4

53. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 53 The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Children in Divorced Families –Children in divorced families show poorer adjustment than their counterparts in nondivorced families. –Most (approximately 75%) do not have significant adjustment problems. –If divorce reduces the stresses and disruptions of an unhappy marriage that erode children’s well-being, divorce can be advantageous; however, divorce accompanied by diminished resources, inept parenting, and sustained/increased conflict may be more harmful than staying together.

54. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 54 The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Children in Divorced Families (continued) –If divorced parents’ relationship with each other is harmonious and they use authoritative parenting, children’s adjustment improves. –Although disengagement from the family is higher for children in divorced families (especially boys), a caring adult outside the home may have a positive influence. –Vulnerability to emotional and social problems is influenced by the child’s adjustment before the divorce, plus the child’s personality, temperament, gender, and developmental status, and the custodial situation.

55. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 55 The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Children in Divorced Families (continued) –Custodial mothers experience the loss of about one- fourth to one-half of their predivorce income, compared with a loss of one-tenth by custodial fathers. –The income loss for divorced mothers is accompanied by increased workloads, high rates of job instability, and residential moves to less desirable neighborhoods with inferior schools.

56. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 56 The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Divorce and Children’s Emotional Problems Refer to Figure 15.5

57. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 57 The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Stepfamilies –The complex histories and multiple relationships of stepfamilies make adjustment difficult. –Three common types of stepfamily structure are (1) stepfather, (2) stepmother, and (3) blended or complex. –Although children in stepfamilies show more adjustment problems than children in nondivorced families, a majority of children in stepfamilies do not have problems. –Early adolescence is an especially difficult time for the formation of a stepfamily (Anderson & others, 1999).

58. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 58 The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Gay Male and Lesbian Parents –Approximately 20% of lesbians and 10% of gay men are parents; they may be single or they may have same- gender partners. –Researchers have found few differences between children growing up with lesbian mothers or gay fathers and children growing up with heterosexual parents in terms of popularity with peers, adjustment and mental health, and sexual orientation.

59. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 59 The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Cultural, Ethnic, and Socioeconomic Variations in Families –Cross-cultural studies find that cultures vary on a number of issues involving families, including father’s role, support systems available to families, and discipline (Harkness & Super, 2002). –Although authoritarian parenting is widespread in many countries, the most common pattern is one that is warm and controlling and neither permissive nor restrictive.

60. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 60 The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Cultural, Ethnic, and Socioeconomic Variations in Families (continued) –Ethnicity Families within different ethnic groups in the United States differ in their size, structure, composition, reliance on kinships, networks, and levels of income and education (Coll & Pachter, 2002; Gonzales et al. 2004; Leyendecker et al, 2005; Parke, 2004). Some aspects of home life can help protect ethnic minority children from injustice.

61. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 61 The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Cultural, Ethnic, and Socioeconomic Variations in Families (continued) –Socioeconomic Status In America and most Western cultures, differences have been found in child rearing among different socioeconomic-status (SES) groups (Hoff, Laursen, & Tardif, 2002). Lower-SES parents are more concerned with conformity and parental authority, use more physical punishment, and are more directive and less conversational with their children.

62. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 62 The Changing Family in a Changing Social World –Socioeconomic Status (continued) Higher-SES parents are more concerned with developing children’s initiative and delay of gratification, are more egalitarian, are less likely to use physical punishment, and are less directive and more conversational with their children. Lower-SES parents see education as the teacher’s job; higher-SES parents see it as a joint endeavor between parents and teachers.

63. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 63 The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Gender and Parenting –The Mother’s Role The role of the mother has low prestige in our society. Even when mothers work outside the home, they are still mainly responsible for the children, but family work is both positive and negative for women.

64. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 64 The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Gender and Parenting (continued) –The Father’s Role Fathers are more likely to have playful interactions with their children compared to mothers’ child-care activities. As adults, children who experienced paternal warmth develop better social relationships, and children whose fathers used an authoritative parent style have fewer externalized and internalized problems.

65. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 65 The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Gender and Parenting (continued) –Coparenting: The amount of support parents provide for one another in raising their children. When parents show cooperation, mutual respect, balanced communication, and attunement to each other’s needs, this helps the child to develop positive attitudes toward both males and females (Biller, 1993; Tamis-Lemonda & Cabrera, 1999).

66. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 66 The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Ratio of Fathers’ to Mothers’ Time Engaged with or Accessible to Children on Weekdays Refer to Figure 15.6

67. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 67 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 5 Characterize the changing family in a changing social world –Review How are children influenced by working parents? How does divorce affect children’s development? How does living in a stepfamily influence children’s development? How do lesbian mothers and gay fathers influence children’s development?

68. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 68 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 5 –Review (continued) How do culture, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status influence children’s development in a family? What roles do mothers and fathers play in children’s development? How does coparenting affect children’s development?

69. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 69 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 5 –Reflect Now that you have studied many aspects of families in this chapter, imagine that you have decided to write a book on some aspect of families. What specific aspect of families would you mainly focus on? What would be the title of your book? What would be the major theme of the book?

70. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 70 Summary The family is a system of interacting individuals with different subsystems that have direct and indirect effects on each other. Cognition and emotion play important roles in family processes. The role of cognition includes parents’ cognitions, beliefs, and values about their role, as well as the way they perceive, organize, and understand their children’s behaviors and beliefs. The developmental construction views share the belief that as individuals grow up they acquire modes of relating to others. Two variations in this view emphasize continuity and stability or discontinuity and change in relationships.

71. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 71 Summary Changes in families may be due to great upheavals, such as war, or more subtle changes, such as television and the mobility of families. For some, the parental role is well planned and coordinated, for others it comes as a surprise; there are many myths about parenting. Parents play important roles as managers of children’s opportunities. Parents need to adapt their parenting as children grow older, using less physical manipulation and more reasoning in the process.

72. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 72 Summary Authoritarian, authoritative, neglectful, and indulgent are the four main categories of parenting styles. There are a number of reasons not to use physical punishment in disciplining children, and in some countries physical punishment of children has been outlawed. Child maltreatment is an increasing problem in the United States and is a multifaceted problem. Competent parenting takes time and effort.

73. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 73 Summary Many parents have a difficult time handling adolescents’ push for autonomy. Researchers classify relationships between parents and adolescents as secure-autonomous or insecure; they categorize insecure attachment into three different types. Secure attachment to parents increases the likelihood that adolescents will be socially competent. Conflict with parents often increases in early adolescence, but this conflict is often moderate rather than severe.

74. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 74 Summary Siblings interact with each other in more negative and less varied ways than parents and children interact. Birth order is related in certain ways to child characteristics, but some critics believe it has been overemphasized as a predictor of child behavior.

75. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 75 Summary In general, in most studies of mothers working outside the home, no adverse effect on children’s development was found. Children in divorced families show more adjustment problems than their counterparts in nondivorced families, but the majority do not experience significant adjustment problems. Similar to children in divorced families, children in stepfamilies have more problems than their counterparts in nondivorced families, but most do not have serious adjustment problems.

76. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 76 Summary Approximately 20% of lesbians and 10% of gay men are parents. Researchers have found few differences between children growing up in gay or lesbian families and children growing up in heterosexual families. Cultures vary on a number of issues regarding families. Most people associate motherhood with a number of positive images, but the reality is that motherhood is accorded a relatively low status in our society. Coparenting has positive effects on children’s development, and father-mother cooperation and mutual respect help children develop positive attitudes toward both males and females.