Download presentation
Presentation is loading. Please wait.
Published byRosalind Cummings Modified over 9 years ago
1
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Биологические макромолекулы Белки Углеводы Липиды Нуклеиновые кислоты
2
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Organic Compounds Molecules unique to living systems contain carbon and hence are organic compounds They include: Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids
3
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Carbohydrates Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen Their major function is to supply a source of cellular food Examples: Monosaccharides or simple sugars Figure 2.14a
4
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Carbohydrates Disaccharides or double sugars Figure 2.14b PLAY Disaccharides
5
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Carbohydrates Polysaccharides or polymers of simple sugars Figure 2.14c PLAY Polysaccharides
6
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Lipids Contain C, H, and O, but the proportion of oxygen in lipids is less than in carbohydrates Examples: Neutral fats or triglycerides Phospholipids Steroids Eicosanoids PLAY Fats
7
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Neutral Fats (Triglycerides) Composed of three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule Figure 2.15a
8
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Other Lipids Phospholipids – modified triglycerides with two fatty acid groups and a phosphorus group Figure 2.15b
9
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Other Lipids Steroids – flat molecules with four interlocking hydrocarbon rings Eicosanoids – 20-carbon fatty acids found in cell membranes Figure 2.15c
10
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Representative Lipids Found in the Body Neutral fats – found in subcutaneous tissue and around organs Phospholipids – chief component of cell membranes Steroids – cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, sex hormones, and adrenal cortical hormones
11
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Representative Lipids Found in the Body Fat-soluble vitamins – vitamins A, E, and K Eicosanoids – prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes Lipoproteins – transport fatty acids and cholesterol in the bloodstream
12
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Amino Acids Building blocks of protein, containing an amino group and a carboxyl group Amino group NH 2 Carboxyl groups COOH
13
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Amino Acids Figure 2.16a–c
14
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Amino Acids Figure 2.16d, e
15
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds Figure 2.17
16
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds Figure 2.17 Amino acid Dehydration synthesis Hydrolysis Dipeptide Peptide bond +N H H C R H O N H H C R CC H O H2OH2O H2OH2O N H H C R C H O N H C R C H O OH
17
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds Figure 2.17 Amino acid +N H H C R H O N H H C R CC H O OH
18
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds Figure 2.17 Amino acid Dehydration synthesis +N H H C R H O N H H C R CC H O H2OH2O OH
19
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds Figure 2.17 Amino acid Dehydration synthesis Dipeptide Peptide bond +N H H C R H O N H H C R CC H O H2OH2O N H H C R C H O N H C R C H O OH
20
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds Figure 2.17 Dipeptide Peptide bond N H H C R C H O N H C R C H O OH
21
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds Figure 2.17 Hydrolysis Dipeptide Peptide bond H2OH2O N H H C R C H O N H C R C H O OH
22
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds Figure 2.17 Amino acid Hydrolysis Dipeptide Peptide bond +N H H C R H O N H H C R CC H O H2OH2O N H H C R C H O N H C R C H O OH
23
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds Figure 2.17 Amino acid Dehydration synthesis Hydrolysis Dipeptide Peptide bond +N H H C R H O N H H C R CC H O H2OH2O H2OH2O N H H C R C H O N H C R C H O OH
24
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structural Levels of Proteins Primary – amino acid sequence Secondary – alpha helices or beta pleated sheets PLAY Chemistry of Life: Proteins: Secondary Structure PLAY Chemistry of Life: Proteins: Primary Structure PLAY Chemistry of Life: Introduction to Protein Structure
25
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structural Levels of Proteins Tertiary – superimposed folding of secondary structures Quaternary – polypeptide chains linked together in a specific manner PLAY Chemistry of Life: Proteins: Quaternary Structure PLAY Chemistry of Life: Proteins: Tertiary Structure
26
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structural Levels of Proteins Figure 2.18a–c
27
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structural Levels of Proteins Figure 2.18b,d,e
28
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fibrous and Globular Proteins Fibrous proteins Extended and strand-like proteins Examples: keratin, elastin, collagen, and certain contractile fibers
29
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fibrous and Globular Proteins Globular proteins Compact, spherical proteins with tertiary and quaternary structures Examples: antibodies, hormones, and enzymes
30
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein Denuaturation Reversible unfolding of proteins due to drops in pH and/or increased temperature Figure 2.19a
31
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein Denuaturation Irreversibly denatured proteins cannot refold and are formed by extreme pH or temperature changes Figure 2.19b
32
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Molecular Chaperones (Chaperonins) Help other proteins to achieve their functional three-dimensional shape Maintain folding integrity Assist in translocation of proteins across membranes Promote the breakdown of damaged or denatured proteins
33
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Characteristics of Enzymes Most are globular proteins that act as biological catalysts Holoenzymes consist of an apoenzyme (protein) and a cofactor (usually an ion) Enzymes are chemically specific
34
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Characteristics of Enzymes Frequently named for the type of reaction they catalyze Enzyme names usually end in -ase Lower activation energy
35
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Characteristics of Enzymes Figure 2.20
36
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Mechanism of Enzyme Action Enzyme binds with substrate Product is formed at a lower activation energy Product is released PLAY How Enzymes Work
37
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21 Active site Amino acids Enzyme (E) Enzyme-substrate complex (E-S) Internal rearrangements leading to catalysis Dipeptide product (P) Free enzyme (E) Substrates (S) Peptide bond H2OH2O +
38
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21 Active site Amino acids Enzyme (E) Enzyme-substrate complex (E-S) Substrates (S) H2OH2O +
39
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21 Active site Amino acids Enzyme (E) Enzyme-substrate complex (E-S) Internal rearrangements leading to catalysis Substrates (S) H2OH2O +
40
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21 Active site Amino acids Enzyme (E) Enzyme-substrate complex (E-S) Internal rearrangements leading to catalysis Dipeptide product (P) Free enzyme (E) Substrates (S) Peptide bond H2OH2O +
41
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nucleic Acids Composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorus Their structural unit, the nucleotide, is composed of N-containing base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group
42
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nucleic Acids Five nitrogen bases contribute to nucleotide structure – adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U) Two major classes – DNA and RNA
43
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Double-stranded helical molecule found in the nucleus of the cell Replicates itself before the cell divides, ensuring genetic continuity Provides instructions for protein synthesis
44
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structure of DNA Figure 2.22a
45
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structure of DNA Figure 2.22b
46
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) Single-stranded molecule found in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm of a cell Uses the nitrogenous base uracil instead of thymine Three varieties of RNA: messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA
47
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Source of immediately usable energy for the cell Adenine-containing RNA nucleotide with three phosphate groups
48
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Figure 2.23
49
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24 Solute Solute transported Contracted smooth muscle cell Product made Relaxed smooth muscle cell Reactants Membrane protein P PiPi ATP PXX Y Y + (a) Transport work (b) Mechanical work (c) Chemical work PiPi PiPi + ADP
50
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24 Solute Membrane protein P ATP (a) Transport work
51
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24 Solute Solute transported Membrane protein P PiPi ATP (a) Transport work PiPi + ADP
52
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24 Relaxed smooth muscle cell ATP (b) Mechanical work
53
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24 Contracted smooth muscle cell Relaxed smooth muscle cell ATP (b) Mechanical work PiPi + ADP
54
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24 Reactants ATP PX Y+ (c) Chemical work
55
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24 Product madeReactants ATP PXX Y Y + (c) Chemical work PiPi PiPi + ADP
56
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24 Solute Solute transported Contracted smooth muscle cell Product made Relaxed smooth muscle cell Reactants Membrane protein P PiPi ATP PXX Y Y + (a) Transport work (b) Mechanical work (c) Chemical work PiPi PiPi + ADP
57
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings МЕТАБОЛИЗМ
58
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Catabolism provides the building blocks and energy for anabolism. Figure 5.1
59
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings A metabolic pathway is a sequence of enzymatically catalyzed chemical reactions in a cell. Metabolic pathways are determined by enzymes. Enzymes are encoded by genes. PLAY Animation: Metabolic Pathways (Overview)
60
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Oxidation-Reduction Oxidation is the removal of electrons. Reduction is the gain of electrons. Redox reaction is an oxidation reaction paired with a reduction reaction. Figure 5.9
61
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Oxidation-Reduction In biological systems, the electrons are often associated with hydrogen atoms. Biological oxidations are often dehydrogenations. Figure 5.10
62
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Generation of ATP ATP is generated by the phosphorylation of ADP.
63
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Generation of ATP Substrate-level phosphorylation is the transfer of a high-energy PO 4 – to ADP.
64
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Generation of ATP Energy released from the transfer of electrons (oxidation) of one compound to another (reduction) is used to generate ATP by chemiosmosis.
65
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Generation of ATP Light causes chlorophyll to give up electrons. Energy released from the transfer of electrons (oxidation) of chlorophyll through a system of carrier molecules is used to generate ATP.
Similar presentations
© 2025 SlidePlayer.com. Inc.
All rights reserved.