11—Emotional Development

11—Emotional Development
Exploring Emotion Development of Emotion Emotional Problems, Stress, and Coping Temperament Attachment Summary

Exploring Emotions What Are Emotions? Emotion
Feeling, or affect, that occurs when a person is in a state or an interaction that is important to him or her, especially to his or her well-being (Campos, 2004).

Exploring Emotions What Are Emotions? (continued)
Positive emotions include enthusiasm, joy, and love. Negative emotions include anxiety, anger, guilt, and sadness. Emotions are influenced by biological foundations and experience. Darwin: Human facial expressions are innate, not learned; they are the same in all cultures around the world, and they evolved from animal emotions.

Exploring Emotions What Are Emotions? (continued)
Although research supports Darwin generally, regulation and expression of emotions are molded by caregivers and cultural factors. Caregivers play a role in infants’ neurobiological regulation of emotions. Display rules for emotions are not universal.

Exploring Emotions A Functionalist View of Emotion
In the functionalist view, emotions are relational rather than strictly internal, intrapsychic phenomena, and emotions are linked with an individual’s goals. Regulation of Emotion Emotional regulation consists of effectively managing arousal to adapt and reach a goal. Arousal involves a state of alertness or activation, which can reach levels that are too high for effective functioning.

Exploring Emotions Regulation of Emotion (continued)
Developmental trends in regulating emotion during childhood are: External to internal resources Cognitive strategies Emotional arousal Choosing and managing contexts and relationships Coping with stress

Exploring Emotions Regulation of Emotion (continued)
A prominent feature of adolescents with problems is difficulty managing their emotions Parents have an impact on how their children regulate their emotions. Emotion-coaching parents Emotion-dismissing parents

Exploring Emotions Emotional Competence Emotional competence involves:
Awareness of one’s emotional states. Detecting others’ emotions. Using the vocabulary of emotion terms in socially and culturally appropriate ways. Empathic and sympathetic sensitivity to others’ emotional experiences. Recognizing that inner emotional states do not have to correspond to outer expressions.

Exploring Emotions Emotional Competence (continued)
Adaptively coping with negative emotions by using self-regulatory strategies. Awareness that the expression of emotions plays a major role in the nature of relationships. Viewing oneself overall as feeling the way one wants to feel. Acquiring these skills helps children manage their emotions, become resilient in the face of stressful circumstances, and develop positive relationships.

Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1
Discuss basic aspects of emotion Review How is emotion defined? What characterizes functionalism in emotion? What are some developmental changes in the regulation of emotion? What constitutes emotional competence?

Think back to your childhood and adolescent years. How effective were you in regulating your emotions? Give some examples. Has your ability to regulate your emotions changed as you have grown older? Explain.

Development of Emotion
Infancy Early Developmental Changes in Emotion Communication of emotions permits coordinated interactions with caregivers and the beginning of emotional bonds; these interactions are reciprocal or synchronous when all is going well. Primary emotions present in humans and other animals include surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust; appear in first 6 months of life.

– Early Developmental Changes in Emotion (continued) Self-conscious emotions require cognition, especially consciousness, including empathy, jealousy, embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt; first appear from the middle of the second year through the middle of the third year of life and allow children to use societal standards and rules to evaluate their behavior.

The First Appearance of Different Emotions Refer to Figure 11.1

Expression of Different Emotions in Infants Refer to Figure 11.2

Infancy (continued) Crying is the most important mechanism newborns have for communicating with their world. Basic cry: A rhythmic pattern usually consisting of a cry, a briefer silence, a shorter whistle that is higher pitched than the main cry, and then a brief rest before the next cry. Anger cry: A variation of the basic cry, with more excess air forced through the vocal cords. Pain cry: A sudden, long, initial loud cry followed by breath holding; it is stimulated by a high-intensity stimulus.

Infancy (continued) Smiling is another important way that infants communicate emotions. Reflexive smile: A smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli. It appears during the month after birth, usually during sleep. Social smile: A smile in response to an external stimulus, typically in response to a face. Occurs around age 2 to 3 months.

Infancy (continued) Fear is one of the baby’s earliest emotions. Stranger anxiety: An infant’s fear and wariness of strangers. It first appears at about 6 months of age as wary reactions, and by 9 months is more intense; it continues to escalate through the infant’s first birthday. Separation protest: Crying when the caregiver leaves; it peaks about 15 months for U.S. infants.

Separation Protest in Four Cultures Refer to Figure 11.3

Infancy (continued) Social Referencing “Reading” emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation. Emotional Regulation and Coping During the first year of life, the infant gradually develops an ability to inhibit, or minimize, the intensity and duration of emotional reactions. This is influenced by context.

Early Childhood Self-conscious emotions require that children be able to refer to themselves and be aware of themselves as distinct from others. Pride is expressed when children feel joy as a result of the successful outcome of a particular action. Shame emerges when children perceive they have not met standards or goals. Guilt emerges when children judge their behavior to be a failure.

Early Childhood (continued) Young Children’s Emotion Language and Understanding of Emotion Important changes in emotional development are the increased ability to talk about the child’s own and others’ emotions and an increased understanding of emotion. Emotions play a strong role in whether a child’s peer relationships are successful or not.

A Young Child Expressing the Emotion of Shame Refer to Figure 11.4

Some Characteristics of Young Children’s Language for Talking about Emotion and Their Understanding of It Refer to Figure 11.5

Middle and Late Childhood Developmental changes in emotions: Increased ability to understand such complex emotions as pride and shame. Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a particular situation. Increased tendency to take into fuller account the events leading to emotional reactions. Improvements in suppressing or concealing negative reactions. Self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings.

Adolescence Early adolescence is a time when emotional highs and lows increase (Rosenblum & Lewis, 2003). Although moodiness is a normal aspect of early adolescence, for some adolescents such emotions can reflect serious problems. Emotional fluctuations in early adolescence may be related to the variability of hormones, but emotions are more strongly influenced by environmental experiences than hormones.

Self-Reported Extremes of Emotions by Adolescents, Mothers, and Fathers Using the Experience Sampling Method Refer to Figure 11.6

Describe the development of emotion Review How does emotion develop in infancy? What characterizes emotional development in early childhood? What changes take place in emotion during middle and late childhood? How does emotion change in adolescence?

A mother and father of an 8-month-old baby are having difficulty getting any sleep at night because the baby wakes up in the middle of the night crying. How would you recommend that they deal with this situation?

Emotional Problems, Stress, and Coping
Depression Depression: a mood disorder in which the individual is unhappy, demoralized, self-derogatory, and bored. Depression in Childhood Bowlby: Insecure attachment, lack of love and affection in child rearing, or loss of a parent. Beck: People acquire cognitive schemas characterized by self-devaluation and lack of confidence about the future; depression develops by paying attention to negative cues in the environment and identifying themselves as the cause of negative outcomes.

Depression in Childhood (continued) Seligman: Learned helplessness—when individuals are exposed to negative experiences over which they have no control, they are likely to become depressed.

Depression (continued) Depression in Parents Depressed mothers show lower rates of behavior and constricted affect, less effortful control strategies with their children, and sometimes act hostile and negative toward them. Depression in parents is associated with problems of adjustment and disorders in their children. Marital turmoil, not parental depression, may be the key factor contributing to children’s adjustment problems.

Depression (continued) Depression in Adolescence Depression is more likely to occur in adolescence than in childhood; rates are higher for girls than for boys. Family risk factors: parental depression, emotionally unavailable parents, high marital conflict, and financial problems. Poor peer relationships are also related to adolescent depression.

Depression (continued) Suicide Is rare in childhood but escalates in early adolescence. Suicide is the third leading cause of death today among adolescents 13 through 19 years of age in the United States (National Center for Health Statistics, 2000). Risk factors include genetic relationship to someone who has committed suicide, illegal drug use, sexual minority status, family instability, and depression.

Suicide (continued) Girls are more likely to attempt suicide than boys, but boys are more likely to commit suicide (they use more lethal means). Recently a link has been noted between the use of antidepressants and adolescents’ suicidal thoughts.

What to Do and What Not to Do When You Suspect Someone Is Likely to Attempt Suicide Refer to Figure 11.7

The response of individuals to the circumstances and events (called stressors) that threaten them and tax their coping abilities.

Stress and Coping (continued) Cognitive Factors Cognitive appraisal: Lazarus’ term for children’s interpretations of events in their lives as harmful, threatening, or challenging, and their determination of whether they have the resources to effectively cope with the events.

Cognitive Factors (continued) Primary appraisal: Lazarus’ view that individuals interpret whether an event involves harm or loss that already has occurred, a threat that involves some future danger, or a challenge to be overcome. Secondary appraisal: Lazarus’ view that individuals evaluate their resources and determine how effectively they can cope with an event.

Cognitive Factors (continued) Pessimists believe there are permanent reasons why bad things happen to them. Optimists perceive bad experiences as temporary. Seligman says pessimistic children are more likely to become depressed, feel hopeless, underachieve at school, and have poor health, but there are effective techniques for turning pessimists into optimists.

Optimistic and Pessimistic Children’s Interpretations of Bad and Good Events Refer to Figure 11.8

Stress and Coping (continued) Life Events and Daily Hassles Psychologists have emphasized that life’s daily experiences as well as major events may be the culprits in stress (D’Angelo & Wierzbicki, 2003). Sociocultural Factors Sociocultural factors involved in stress include poverty and acculturative stress (the negative consequences of cultural change that results from continuous, firsthand contact between two distinctive cultural groups).

Stress and Coping (continued) Coping with Stress Children do better when they take a problem-solving approach to stress rather than avoiding it. Children who have a number of coping techniques have the best chance of adapting and functioning competently in the face of stress. As children get older, they are more accurate at appraising a stressful situation and determining how much control they have over it.

Stress and Coping (continued) Coping with Death Children who have healthy and positive relationships with their parents before a parent dies cope with death more effectively than children with unhappy prior relationships with the parent. Though children vary somewhat in the age at which they begin to understand death, the limitations of preoperational thought make it difficult for a child to comprehend death before the age of 7 or 8.

Summarize the nature of depression, suicide, stress, and coping Review What causes depression in childhood and adolescence? Why do adolescents attempt and commit suicide? What is the nature of stress and coping in children?

What advice would you give to a parent whose child is experiencing a great deal of stress and having difficulty coping?

Temperament Temperament
An individual’s behavioral style and characteristic way of responding. Temperament can be thought of as the biological and emotional foundations of personality.

Temperament Describing and Classifying Temperament
Chess and Thomas’ Classification Easy child: Generally has a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new experiences. Difficult child: Tends to react negatively and cry frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change. Slow-to-warm-up child: Has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood.

Temperament Describing and Classifying Temperament (continued)
Kagan’s Behavioral Inhibition Focuses on the differences between a shy, subdued, timid child and a sociable, extraverted, bold child. Inhibition to the unfamiliar, for example, shyness with strangers, is a relatively stable trait throughout childhood.

Temperament Describing and Classifying Temperament (continued)
Rothbart and Bates’ Classification (Rothbart, 2004): Extraversion/surgency: positive anticipation, impulsivity, activity level, and sensation seeking. Negative affectivity: fear, frustration, sadness, and discomfort. Effortful control (self-regulation): attentional focusing and shifting, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, and low-intensity pleasure.

Temperament Biological Foundations and Experience
Biological Influences Physiological characteristics have been linked with different temperaments. Twin and adoption studies suggest a moderate influence of heredity on differences in temperament.

Temperament Developmental Connections Developmental Contexts
Important dimensions of temperament are activity level and emotionality/ability to control emotions. Temperament in childhood is linked with adjustment in early adulthood. Developmental Contexts Parents might react differently to a child’s temperament depending on whether the child is a boy or a girl. The reaction to an infant’s temperament may depend in part on culture.

Temperament Temperament in Childhood, Personality in Adulthood, and Intervening Contexts Refer to Figure 11.9

Temperament Biological Foundations and Experience (continued)
Goodness of Fit and Parenting Goodness of fit: The match between a child’s temperament and environmental demands the child must cope with. Parenting strategies: Attention to and respect for individuality. Structuring the child’s environment. The “difficult child” and packaged parenting programs.

Characterize variations in temperament and their significance Review How can temperament be described and classified? How is temperament influenced by biological foundations and experience? What is goodness of fit? What are some positive parenting strategies for dealing with a child’s temperament?

Consider your own temperament. We described a number of different temperament categories. Which one best describes your temperament? Has your temperament changed as your have gotten older? If your temperament has changed, what factors contributed to the changes?

Attachment What Is Attachment?
A close emotional bond between two people. Freud: Oral satisfaction. Harlow: Contact comfort. Erikson: Physical comfort and sensitivity. Bowlby: Infants and their caregivers are biologically predisposed to form attachments; attachment develops in a series of phases, moving from a baby’s general preference for human beings to a partnership with primary caregivers.

Attachment Contact Time with Wire and Cloth Surrogate Mothers
Refer to Figure 11.10

Attachment Individual Differences in Attachment
Ainsworth: Some babies have a more positive attachment experience than others. Strange situation: An observational measure of infant attachment that requires the infant to move through a series of introductions, separations, and reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in a prescribed order.

Attachment The Ainsworth Strange Situation Refer to Figure 11.11

Attachment Individual Differences in Attachment (continued)
Attachment styles based on the strange situation Securely attached babies use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment. Insecure avoidant babies show insecurity by avoiding the mother. Insecure resistant babies often cling to the caregiver, then resist her by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away. Insecure disorganized babies are disorganized and disoriented.

Attachment Individual Differences in Attachment (continued)
Criticisms of the Strange Situation May have a cultural bias. May not generalize to natural environment. Does not necessarily predict attachment later in life. Too much emphasis is been placed on the attachment bond in infancy.

Attachment Cross-Cultural Comparison of Attachment
Refer to Figure 11.12

Attachment Caregiving Styles and Attachment
Securely attached babies have caregivers who are sensitive to their signals and are consistently available to respond to their infants’ needs (Gao, Elliott, & Waters, 1999; Main, 2000). Caregivers of insecurely attached babies often don’t respond to their babies’ signals and have little physical contact with them. Caregivers of resistant babies tend to be inconsistent, sometimes responding, sometimes not. Caregivers of disorganized babies often neglect or physically abuse them.

Attachment Child Care Variations in Child Care
Parental leave: Most U.S. adults do not receive paid leave from their jobs to care for their children, thus millions of children are in some type of nonparental care during the day. Variations in Child Care Many child-care centers house large groups of children and have elaborate facilities; some are commercial operations, some are nonprofit centers, and some care is in private homes by professional or nonprofessional caregivers.

Attachment Variations in Child Care (continued)
Extensive child care is harmful to low-income children only when the care is of low quality; high-quality care is linked with fewer internalizing and externalizing problems. High-quality child care includes a pediatrician, a nonteaching director, and an infant-teacher ratio of 3:1; teachers’ aides smile frequently, talk with infants, and provide a safe environment.

Attachment – Variations in Child Care (continued)
Children from families with few resources are more likely to experience poor-quality child care. Difficult children and those with poor self-control are at risk for being harmed by child care.

Review and Reflect; Learning Goal 5
Explain attachment and its development Review What is attachment? What are some individual variations in attachment? What are some criticisms of attachment theory? How are caregiving styles related to attachment? How does child care affect children?

Review and Reflect; Learning Goal 5
Imagine that a friend of yours is getting ready to put her baby in child care. What advice would you give to her? Do you think she should stay at home with the baby? Why or why not? What type of child care would you recommend?

Summary Emotion is feeling or affect that occurs when a person is in a state or an interaction that is important to him or her. Darwin described the evolutionary basis of emotions; today psychologists believe emotions have a biological foundation. Facial expressions of emotion are the same across cultures, but display rules are not culturally universal. The functionalist view of emotion emphasizes the importance of contexts and relationships in emotion.

Summary Emotional regulation consists of effectively managing arousal to adapt and reach a goal. Parents help children learn to regulate emotions through emotion coaching. Emotional competence focuses on the adaptive nature of emotional experience and involves developing skills, such as becoming aware of one’s emotions.

Summary Two broad types of emotions are primary emotions (surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust), which appear in the first 6 to 8 months of life, and self-conscious emotions (empathy, jealousy, and embarrassment), which appear at about 1-1/2 to 2 years of age. Infants communicate with their world by crying and smiling (reflexive, then social smiles). Two fears that infants develop are stranger anxiety and separation from a caregiver.

Summary Social referencing increases in the second year of life.
Preschoolers become more adept at talking about their own and others’ emotions. In middle and late childhood, children become better at controlling and managing emotions to meet social standards and they increasingly understand such complex emotions as pride and shame, and that more than one emotion can be expressed in a particular situation.

Summary Early adolescence is a time when emotional highs and lows increase, and moodiness is normal. Mood changes may be due to hormonal influences or environmental experiences. Depression is more likely to occur in adolescence than in childhood, and in girls more than in boys. Bowlby’s development view, Beck’s cognitive view, and Seligman’s learned helplessness view help explain depression. Suicide is the third leading cause of death in U.S. 13- to 19-year-olds.

Summary Lazarus believes that children’s stress depends on how they cognitively appraise and interpret events. Seligman argues that an important aspect of coping with stress is whether the child is optimistic or pessimistic. Sociocultural influences, such as acculturative stress and poverty, can generate stress. Young children do not understand the nature of death; by middle childhood, they understand it is final and irreversible.

Summary Temperament is an individual’s behavioral style and characteristic way of emotionally responding. Chess and Thomas classified infants as easy, difficult, or slow to warm up; Kagan believes that inhibition to the unfamiliar is an important temperament category. Rothbart and Bates use positive affect and approach, negative affectivity, and effortful control to classify temperament. Kagan believes children inherit a physiology that biases them toward a particular temperament, and that it is modified through experience.

Summary Activity level in early childhood is linked with being an outgoing adult; the link between childhood temperament and adult personality depends in part on context. Goodness of fit refers to the match between a child’s temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with. It is recommended that caregivers should (1) be sensitive to the individual characteristics of the child, (2) be flexible in responding to these characteristics, and (3) avoid negative labeling of the child. Attachment is a close emotional bond between the infant and caregiver.

Summary Some critics argue that attachment theorists have not given adequate attention to genetics and temperament. Securely attached babies use the caregiver, usually the mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment. Caregivers of secure babies are sensitive to the babies’ signals and are consistently available to meet their needs. Caregivers of avoidant babies tend to be unavailable or rejecting.

Summary Caregivers of ambivalent babies tend to be inconsistently available and not very affectionate. Caregivers of disorganized babies often neglect or physically abuse their babies. Child care has become a basic need of the American family. The quality of child care is uneven. Infants from low-income families are more likely to receive the lowest quality of care. High-quality child care can be achieved and has few adverse effects on children and may, in fact, be linked with fewer child problems.

11—Emotional Development

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