1. Components of Emotion: Facial expressions Physiological factors (e.g., heart rate, hormone levels) Subjective experience/feelings Cognitions that may elicit or accompany subjective experience

2. Structuralist Theories –Basic emotions (e.g., anger, fear, surprise, sadness, joy, disgust) are the product of evolution—adaptive for survival and reproductive success –Universal across cultures –Discrete Each emotion corresponds to a unique pattern of facial expression, physiological arousal, subjective experience, and cognitions

3. Functionalist Theories –Emotions are not as discrete as structuralist theories claim Emotions are often blended There is not a one-to-one correspondence between emotions and patterns of facial expression, physiological arousal, subjective feelings, and cognitions –Ex: smiling may not always indicate happiness; physiological changes such as increases in heart rate are not specific to one emotion

4. –“Basic emotions” are not necessarily culturally universal Emotional experience is influenced by the social/cultural environment –“Emotion is thus the person’s attempt or readiness to establish, maintain, or change the relation between the person and the environment on matters of significance to that person” (Saarni, Mumme, & Campos, 1998, p. 238)

5. Identifying Others’ Emotions Between about 4 and 7 months, infants can discriminate some emotional expressions –Assessed using preferential looking or habituation paradigms

6. At about 7 months, infants “match” facial expression of emotion with vocal expression (intermodal perception)

8. Between 8 and 12 months, some infants engage in social referencing –Use adults’ facial or vocal cues to interpret novel or ambiguous situations Ex: visual cliff

9. Labeling Facial Expressions of Emotion –Can distinguish happiness first Two-year-olds are skilled at identifying happiness –Learn to distinguish different negative emotions (anger, fear, sadness) by late preschool/early school years Anger and sadness first, followed by fear, surprise, and disgust –Learn to identify self-conscious emotions by early to mid- elementary school years Pride, shame, guilt

10. Understanding Causes of Emotion Between 2 and 3, children can identify happy situations By age 4, can identify sad situations –Fear- and anger-inducing situations are harder, but children get better at identifying them in the preschool and elementary school years Ability to identify situations that elicit complex emotions often emerges after age 7 –Pride, guilt, shame

11. Understanding of Real and False Emotions Between ages 4 and 6, children become better able to understand that one’s appearance (e.g., facial expression) may not match one’s true emotion –Display Rules: Informal norms concerning the appropriate expression (or masking) of emotions May be used for different reasons

12. Emotion regulation –Processes or strategies that modify emotional reactions

13. Development of ER: Patterns of Change Role of Caregivers –Parents help infants and young children regulate negative emotions Ex: distract a frustrated infant –Over time, infants and young children gradually become better able to regulate emotions independently

14. Use of cognitive strategies to regulate emotions increases with age –Ex: mental distraction; focus on positive aspects of a situation

15. Use of effective strategies to regulate emotion increases with age –Ex: problem-focused vs. avoidant strategies; realistic vs. unrealistic strategies

16. Individual Differences in ER Often assessed using tasks designed to elicit negative emotions (e.g., anger) –Infants: Arm Restraint Inaccessible Toy –Toddlers and Preschoolers (24 months and older) Inaccessible toy/snack Compliance (e.g., clean-up task) Resistance to Temptation Delay of Gratification

17. Observe children’s level of distress and their coping strategies –Ex: distraction; seeking assistance; focusing on forbidden object; “venting” Coping strategies that decrease distress are considered to be more effective strategies (i.e., more effective emotion regulation)

18. Emotion regulation skills are positively related to children’s social competence and negatively related to behavior problems

19. Socialization of Emotions and ER Emotions expressed in the family are related to children’s emotional development and adjustment –Positive emotions expressed by parents are positively related to children’s expression of positive emotions, understanding of others’ emotions, and social skills and negatively related to aggression –Negative emotions expressed by parents (anger, sadness) are positively related to children’s expression of negative emotions and behavior problems and negatively related to social skills

20. Parents’ reactions to children’s emotions are also related to children’s emotions and adjustment –Parents who criticize or dismiss children’s feelings (e.g., of anxiety, sadness) have children who are less emotionally and socially competent Exs: less sympathetic toward others, less able to cope with stress, express more negative emotions and problem behaviors such as aggression

21. Parents who talk to their children about emotions have children who show greater understanding of others’ emotions Parents who “coach” their children about ways of coping with and expressing emotions appropriately have children who are more socially competent and less likely to show problem behaviors