1. Plant Development Chapter 31 Part 2

2. 31.4 Adjusting the Direction and Rates of Growth  Tropisms Plants adjust the direction and rate of growth in response to environmental stimuli such as gravity, light, contact, and mechanical stress Hormones are typically part of this effect

3. Gravitropism  Gravitropism A growth response to gravity which causes roots to grow downward and shoots to grow upward  Statoliths Amyloplasts containing heavy starch grains that sink to the bottom of the cell A change in position results in movement of cell’s auxin efflux carriers

4. Gravitropism

5. Fig. 31-10a, p. 530 A Gravitropism of a corn seedling. No matter what the orientation of a seed in the soil, a seedling’s primary root grows down, and its primary shoot grows up.

6. Fig. 31-10 (b-c), p. 530 B These seedlings were rotated 90° counterclockwise after they germinated. The plant adjusts to the change by redistributing auxin, and the direction of growth shifts as a result. C In the presence of auxin transport inhibitors, seedlings do not adjust their direction of growth after a 90° counterclockwise rotation. Mutations in genes that encode auxin transport proteins have the same effect.

7. Statoliths and Auxin

9. Fig. 31-11a, p. 530 statoliths A Heavy, starch-packed statoliths are settled on the bottom of gravity-sensing cells in a corn root cap.

10. Fig. 31-11b, p. 530 B Ten minutes after the root was rotated, the statoliths settled to the new “bottom” of the cells. The redistribution causes auxin redistribution, and the root tip curves down.

11. Animation: Gravity and statolith distribution

12. Phototropism  Phototropism Orientation of certain plant parts toward light Nonphotosynthetic pigments (phototropins) respond to blue light, initiating signal cascades Auxin is redistributed to shady side of plant

13. Phototropism

14. Fig. 31-12 (a-b), p. 531

15. light B Auxin is transported to the shaded side, where it causes cells to lengthen. A Sunlight strikes only one side of a coleoptile.

16. Animation: Phototropism

17. Fig. 31-12c, p. 531

18. Thigmotropism  Thigmotropism Contact with a solid object changes the direction of plant growth Involves TOUCH genes and calcium ions Results in unequal growth rates on opposite sides of the shoot  Mechanical stress (such as wind) inhibits stem lengthening in a similar touch response

19. Thigmotropism

20. Mechanical Stress

21. 31.5 Sensing Recurring Environmental Changes  Seasonal shifts in night length, temperature, and light trigger seasonal shifts in plant development  Flowering plants respond to recurring cues from the environment with recurring cycles of development

22. Biological Clocks  Biological clock Internal mechanism that governs the timing of rhythmic cycles of activity  Circadian rhythm A cycle of activity that recurs every 24 hours  Solar tracking A circadian rhythm in which a leaf or flower changes position to continually face the sun

23. Setting the Clock  Different wavelengths of sunlight set biological clocks by activating and inactivating photoreceptor pigments (phytochromes)  Active phytochrome cause gene transcription for components of rubisco, photosystem II, phototropin, and molecules involved in flowering, gravitropism, and germination

24. Conversion of Phytochromes

25. Fig. 31-15, p. 532 red 660 nm far-red 730 nm red light PrPfr response inactive far-red light activatedPfr influences gene expression Pfr reverts to Pr in darkness

26. Animation: Phytochrome conversions

27. When to Flower?  Photoperiodism Long-day plants flower when nights are short; short-day plants flower when nights are long Leaf cells transcribe more or less of a flowering gene in response to changes in the length of night relative to the length of day

28. Seasonal Changes in the Northern Temperate Zone

29. Fig. 31-16, p. 532 JANUARY dormancy FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL seed germination or renewed growth; short-day plant flowering MAY JUNE JULY long-day plant flowering short-day plant flowering AUGUST SEPTEMBER onset of dormancy OCTOBER dormancy NOVEMBER DECEMBER Length of night (hours of darkness) 14 12 10 8

30. Flowering and Night Length

31. Fig. 31-17, p. 533 critical night length will flower nightday will not flower night day will flower 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 A Long-day plants flower only when hours of darkness are less than the critical value for the species. Irises will flower only when night length is less than 12 hours. B Short-day plants flower only when hours of darkness are greater than the critical value for the species. Chrysanthemums will flower only when night length exceeds 12 hours. Time being measured (hours)

32. Phytochromes and Photoperiodism

33. Fig. 31-18, p. 533 Long-Day Plant:Short-Day Plant: critical night length did not flower flowered did not flower 0 4 8 12 16 2024 flowered Time being measured (hours) a b

34. Flowering and Vernalization  Vernalization Some biennials and perennials flower in the spring only after exposure to cold winter temperatures

35. Vernalization

36. Animation: Flowering response experiments

37. 31.6 Senescence and Dormancy  Senescence The phase of a plant life cycle between full maturity and death of the plant or plant parts  Abscission The process by which plant parts are shed Triggered by many factors, including seasonal changes in environmental conditions

38. Abscission in Deciduous Plants  Midsummer Auxin is produced; plants divert nutrients into flowers, fruits and seeds  Autumn Auxin production declines in leaves and fruits Ethylene signals enzymes to digest cell walls in abscission zones; leaves and fruits drop

39. Abscission in Deciduous Plants

40. Delayed Senescence

41. Fig. 31-21, p. 534 control (pods not removed) experimental plant (pods removed)

42. Dormancy  Dormancy A period of arrested growth that is triggered (and ended) by environmental cues Signals to begin dormancy include long nights, cold temperatures, and dry, nitrogen-poor soil Favorable conditions signal to break dormancy

43. 31.4-31.6 Key Concepts Responses to Environmental Cues  Plants respond to environmental cues, including gravity, sunlight, and seasonal shifts in night length and temperatures, by altering patterns of growth  Cyclic patterns of growth are responses to changing seasons and other recurring environmental patterns

44. Animation: Cell shapes

45. Animation: Daylength and dormancy

46. Animation: Gravitropism

47. Animation: Vernalization