1. CHANGING PERSPECTIVES IN ECOLOGY AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION: Achieving Landscape And Regional Sustainability Jianguo (Jingle) Wu School of Life Sciences & Global Institute of Sustainability Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287 Jianguo (Jingle) Wu School of Life Sciences & Global Institute of Sustainability Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287

2. OUTLINE 1. Why Biodiversity Conservation? 2. Balance of Nature: Myth or Reality? 3. Theory of Island Biogeography: Useful at all? 4. SLOSS: Missing the Real Point? 5. MVP/PVA: Trustworthy and Efficient Enough? 6. Metapopulation Theory: Elegant, but Oversimplistic? 7. Integrative Perspectives and Planning Principles for Biodiversity Conservation 8. Concluding Remarks

3. Why Is Biodiversity Important?  Goods and ecosystem services  Goods: e.g., food, shelters, timber, fiber, and pharmaceuticals  Services: e.g., water and air purification, climate control, nutrient recycling, carbon sequestration, and control of pests and diseases  Maintaining ecosystem structure and function  e.g., food webs, primary production, nutrient cycling, decomposition  Intrinsic values

4. How many species are there, and Where Are They?  Conservative estimates: 3 to 30 million (as low as 2 million and as high as 100 million), with most of the species being arthropods  Classified and documented: about 1.4 to 1.5 million species of plants, animals and micros  Most biodiversity-rich ecosystems: o tropical rainforests: Tropical rainforests occupy about 7% of the earth’s surface, but host more than 50% of species of all kinds, including an estimated 5 million species of plants and animals o coral reefs o wetlands

5. Rapid Biodiversity Loss Due To Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

6. Increasing Human Population and Resource Consumption Have Led to Biodiversity Loss and Ecosystem Degradation

7. Questions That Must Be Addressed:  How can biodiversity be conserved with ever increasing human pressures on the natural environment?  How should humans and their activities be viewed and treated in planning and managing natural resources for conserving biodiversity?  Are there sound scientific theories and principles for biodiversity conservation? What are they? Are They Adequate?

8. Balance of Nature  Nature maintains a permanence of structure and function with a harmonious order if left alone, and that it can self-organize and return to its previous equilibrium after disturbances.  Profoundly influenced both the theory and practice of ecology and conservation biology

9. Balance of Nature  Profoundly influenced both the theory and practice of ecology and conservation biology –supraorganismic concept –cybernetic concept of ecosystems –equilibrium, steady-state, stability, and homeostasis –classical equilibrium paradigm –influences on the guiding principles and practice of biodiversity conservation and environmental protection

10. Flux of Nature Spatial heterogeneity (patchiness + gradients) is ubiquitous across all scales and organization levels Nonlinearity and transient dynamics dominate ecosystems Shift of perspectives from equilibrium, homogeneity, determinism, and single-scale phenomena to nonequilibrium, heterogeneity, stochasticity, and multi-scale linkages of ecological systems. B of N Is A Myth Rather Than A Scientific Concept Nature is not in constant balance; rather, it is in eternal flux.

11. Hierarchical Patch Dynamics Paradigm Ecological systems are spatially nested patch hierarchies, in which larger patches are made of smaller patches Dynamics of an ecological system can be studied as the composite dynamics of individual patches and their interactions at adjacent hierarchical levels Pattern and process are scale dependent, and interactive Nonequilibrium and stochastic processes are not only common, but also essential for the structure and functioning of ecological systems Ecological stability frequently takes the form of metastability that is achieved through structural and functional redundancy and incorporation in space and time. (Wu and Levin, 1994; Wu and Loucks, 1995; Pickett et al., 1999; Wu, 1999)

12. Theory of Island Biogeography  The existence of an equilibrium species diversity for a given island as extinction and immigration rates become equal,  The effect of island-mainland distance on the species immigration rate, and the effect of island area on the extinction rate  Higher equilibrium species diversity on larger and less distant islands  Greater species turnover on smaller and less distant islands  Key design principles derived: “large”, “round”, “close”, “connected”  Adopted as part of the “World Conservation Strategy” by IUCN in 1980

13. Theory of Island Biogeography Problems  Equilibrium assumption  Multi-faceted influences of landscape context  Internal habitat heterogeneity, disturbance regimes and patch dynamics  Edge effects  Multiple species sources  “No park is an island” (Jansen 1983)! --------------------------------------------------------------------------  So, the theory of island biogeography is heuristically useful, but practically flawed.

14. SLOSS  SLOSS = single large or several small reserves  Oversimplified the complexity of species diversity dynamics  Overlooked several issues critically important to conservation planning and implementation MVP minimum area to sustain MVP minimum dynamic area landscape connectivity specific conservation goals  Both large and small habitat patches have advantages and disadvantages

15. MVP and PVA  MVP - “the smallest isolated population having a 99% chance of remaining extant for 1000 years despite the foreseeable effects of demographic, environmental, and genetic stochasticity, and natural catastrophes” (Shaffer, 1981)  PVA - “population viability analysis”  Problems: o Single species and reductionistic methodology o Great demand for detailed data o Too time-consuming and costly – not efficient o MVP is dynamic and context-dependent! o Using PVA to determine MVP is a “wrong conservation focus” because of the uncertainties associated with the models and data used in PVA (Reed et al, 2002).

16. Metapopulation Theory  Levins (1970) “a population of populations which go extinct locally and recolonize”  Two key processes: extinction and colonization  A major finding: Order can come out of disorder.  Much of metapopulation research: math modeling  Species-specific focus and inadequate consideration of the heterogeneity of landscape matrix and socioeconomic processes  Needs to make the “B/W” assumption more “colorful”.  So, the metapopulation approach is useful, but certainly not adequate for achieving the overall goal of conserving all levels of biodiversity.

17. Integrative Perspectives and Planning Principles for Biodiversity Conservation  A more comprehensive conceptual framework is needed that integrates different levels of biodiversity / landscape patterns / ecological and socioeconomic processes.  Such conceptual framework has to be highly interdisciplinary, cutting across natural and social sciences.  Shift from the traditional species-based focus to a multi- level and multi-scale landscape perspective in both the theory and practice of biodiversity conservation.

18. Perspectives Of Landscape Ecology And Sustainability Science

19. What Is Landscape Ecology? The science and art of studying and influencing the spatial pattern of landscapes and its ecological consequences (Wu and Hobbs 2007). The “science” of landscape ecology provides the theoretical basis for understanding the formation, dynamics and ecological effects of spatial heterogeneity, and the relationship between landscape pattern and ecological and socioeconomic processes over different scales in space and time. The “art” of landscape ecology reflects the humanistic perspectives necessary for integrating biophysical and socioeconomic and cultural components within the landscape in general, and landscape design, planning, and management in particular.

20. Wu, J. 2006. Cross- disciplinarity, landscape ecology, and sustainability science. Landscape Ecology 21:1-4. Interdisciplinary Pyramid of Landscape Ecology

21. 1. Ecological flows in landscape mosaics 2. Causes, processes, and consequences of land use and land cover change 3. Nonlinear dynamics and landscape complexity 4. Scaling 5. Methodological development 6. Relating landscape metrics to ecological processes 7. Integrating humans and their activities into landscape ecology research 8. Optimization of landscape pattern 9. Landscape conservation and sustainability 10. Data acquisition and accuracy assessment Key Topics in Landscape Ecology Wu and Hobbs (2002, 2007)

22. Sustainability and Sustainability Science  Sustainability: the capacity of a society to meet present human needs while preserving the life support system for future generations  Sustainability Science: the study of the dynamic relationship between nature and society  Three Pillars  Environmental, Economic, and Social  Scales  Space: Local/Regional/Global  Time: Decades to centuries

23. Landscape Ecology & Sustainability Science Wu, J. 2006. Cross- disciplinarity, landscape ecology, and sustainability science. Landscape Ecology 21:1-4.Cross- disciplinarity, landscape ecology, and sustainability science

24. Principles for Regional-Scale Biodiversity Conservation Planning Poiani et al. (2000)

25. Principles for Regional-Scale Biodiversity Conservation Planning  The landscape approach (or the ecosystem approach) is often characterized by Ongoing shift in conservation planning towards broader spatial scales Multiplicity in organizational levels and spatial scales Explicit consideration of both biodiversity and ecosystem processes Emphasis on the overall landscape and regional sustainability Integrates both the “coarse-filter” and “fine-filter” strategies  The most comprehensive landscape approach takes into account all land cover types in a region, ranging from the remnant ecosystems to the heavily populated areas - “ a landscape continuum view”

26. The Nature Conservancy (TNC) Regional Conservation Planning Framework (Poiani et al., 1998, 2000; Groves et al., 2002)  incorporates the idea of multi-level and multi-scale biodiversity, systematic conservation planning approaches, and many principles from landscape ecology and sustainability science  integrates both the “coarse-filter” and “fine-filter” strategies

27. TNC’s Seven-Step Regional Conservation Planning Framework Step 1: Identify conservation targets – 3 types  Abiotic or landscape (e.g., elevation, soil, landscape patterns)  Communities and ecosystems  Species (e.g., imperiled or endangered, endemic, focal, keystone) Step 2: Collect information and identify information gaps  Use a variety of data sources  Use a variety of methods, e.g.:  rapid ecological assessments (TNC) / rapid assessment programs (Conservation International)  biological inventories / expert workshops

28. TNC’s Seven-Step Regional Conservation Planning Framework Step 3: Establish conservation goals  Quantify the representation and quality of the conservation targets  The targets should be distributed across environmental gradients  Set realistic goals Step 4: Assess existing conservation areas  Determine what biodiversity features are already adequately protected  What more need to be done Step 5: Evaluate ability of conservation targets to persist  3 criteria – size, condition, and landscape context  PVA for species  Estimate minimum dynamic area for communities and ecosystems  Assess habitat connectivity and landscape integrity using LE methods

29. TNC’s Seven-Step Regional Conservation Planning Framework Step 6. Assemble a portfolio of conservation areas  Identify a set of potential conservation areas in the region, facilitated by GIS and computerized selection algorithms  Select the appropriate conservation areas and design the network configuration based on principles of biogeographic theory and landscape ecology Step 7. Identify priority conservation areas. TNC uses 5 criteria to set priorities:  degree of existing protection (extent and quality)  conservation value (the number, diversity and persistence of conservation targets)  threat (by various disturbances)  feasibility (likelihood of land acquisition and logistic issues)  leverage (broader impacts)

30. UNEP-CBD’s Ecosystem Approach Principles 1) The objectives of management of land, water and living resources are a matter of societal choices. 2) Management should be decentralized to the lowest appropriate level. 3) … consider the effects … on adjacent and other ecosystems. 4) Recognizing potential gains from management, … need to understand and manage the ecosystem in an economic context. 5) Conservation of ecosystem structure and functioning, in order to maintain ecosystem services. 6) Ecosystem must be managed within the limits of their functioning.

31. UNEP-CBD’s Ecosystem Approach Principles 7) The ecosystem approach should be undertaken at the appropriate spatial and temporal scales. 8) Recognizing the varying temporal scales and lag-effects …, objectives … should be set for the long term. 9) Management must recognize the change is inevitable. 10) … seek the appropriate balance between, and integration of, conservation and use of biological diversity. 11) … consider all forms of relevant information, including scientific and indigenous and local knowledge, innovations and practices. 12) … involve all relevant sectors of society and scientific disciplines.

32. Principles for Regional-Scale Biodiversity Conservation Planning  The principles for conservation planning used in these two examples clearly o go far beyond the traditional specie-based strategies, o incorporate most of the new ideas in biodiversity research o fit well with the perspectives of landscape ecology and sustainability science o The TNC framework has been tested and revised in implementing more than 45 regional conservation plans in the United States, Latin America, the Caribbean, Micronesia, and China

33. CONCLUDING REMARKS  Nature is not in balance; rather it is in constant flux.  The world is highly dynamic and fragmented ecologically, economically, and politically.  To survive and persist, biological organisms as well as humans must be able to cope with heterogeneity.  Effective conservation strategies must explicitly recognize  that biodiversity manifests itself at multiple organizational levels and spatial scales,  that landscapes in which biodiversity resides are ever-changing in a hardly predictable way, and  that biodiversity is but one essential component of a sustainable landscape or a sustainable world.

34. CONCLUDING REMARKS  The ultimate success of biodiversity conservation in any region is more than likely to be tied with the economic and social sustainability of that region.  Therefore, future research and practice of biodiversity conservation need to be further integrated with landscape ecology and sustainability science.

35. CONCLUDING REMARKS 1.Beyond “balance of nature” & “nature knows best” 2.Beyond “species” and “populations” 3.Beyond “habitat patches” & “protected areas” 4.Beyond “biodiversity” 5.Beyond “tomorrow” 6.Beyond “conservation” 7.Beyond “nature” 8.Beyond “ecology” 9.Beyond “science”

36. Thank You!

37. CONCLUDING REMARKS 1.Beyond “balance of nature” & “nature knows best” 2.Beyond “species” and “populations” 3.Beyond “habitat patches” & “protected areas” 4.Beyond “biodiversity” 5.Beyond “tomorrow” 6.Beyond “conservation” 7.Beyond “nature” 8.Beyond “ecology” 9.Beyond “science”