1. Malcolm X,

2. Midterm: February 9th, 6:00 – 8:00 PM
Please bring a pencil, eraser, pen, and your student ID to the exam. Note that hats (e.g., baseball caps) should not be worn during the exam.
The exam is worth 20% of your final grade.
The exam will include 30 multiple choice questions (1 point each) and several short answer questions (ranging in value from 2 – 8 points each). It will be scored out of 50.
Psychology 305

3. Questions That Will Be Answered In Today’s Lecture
Learning Perspective on Personality, continued
4. What is Bandura’s social-cognitive learning theory of personality? (continued)
Psychology 305

4. What is Bandura’s social-cognitive learning theory
of personality? (continued)
2. Self-Efficacy
Refers to an individual’s subjective belief about his or her ability to successfully perform a behaviour in a given situation. High self-efficacy entails expectations of success, whereas low self-efficacy entails expectations of failure.
Self-efficacy is not a global, trait-like characteristic. Rather, it varies from one situation to another.
Psychology 305

5. set more challenging goals for themselves.
Research has demonstrated that, in contrast to individuals with low self-efficacy, individuals with high self efficacy in a given domain:
set more challenging goals for themselves.
persist longer in the pursuit of those goals.
recover more quickly from setbacks.
experience less fear, anxiety, stress and depression.
Example: Study of leg strength in men and women as a function of self-efficacy.
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6. Bandura maintained that self-efficacy is influence by:
Mastery experiences (i.e., performance accomplishments).
Social modeling (i.e., vicarious experiences).
Social persuasion (i.e., verbal persuasion).
Emotional arousal (e.g., levels of fear and anxiety).
Research suggests that mastery experiences are the most important determinant of self-efficacy.
Psychology 305

7. 3. Reciprocal Determinism
Suggests that human functioning is a product of the interaction of behaviour (B), person variables (P), and environmental variables (E).
Person variables include cognitions (e.g., memories, judgments, expectations) as well as physical characteristics (e.g., attractiveness, size), and social characteristics (e.g., social status).
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8. Diagrammatically represented as:B P E
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9. Example of reciprocal determinism:
A child is begging his father for a second cookie. The father thinks to himself “If I give him a second cookie, he will stop crying temporarily, but in the future, he will be more likely to persist until I give in to him. Therefore, I will not allow him to have another cookie.” As a result, the father tells his son that he will not give him another cookie. After a few minutes, the child stops begging for another cookie. The father evaluates his behaviour and thinks to himself “I’m a good father because I did the right thing.” With his son no longer begging for a cookie, the father takes his son to the park.
Psychology 305

10. P = Father’s cognitions and status
E = Child’s behaviour B
B = Father’s behaviour
P = Father’s cognitions and status P E
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11. Analysis of the Personality of a Civil Rights Leader
Malcolm X
Discussion Questions
How can Adler’s concepts of inferiority feelings, superiority strivings, and lifestyles be applied to Malcolm X?
Which of Loevinger’s stages of ego development did Malcolm X pass through over the course of his life?
Do you think that Malcolm X successfully resolved all of the crises identified in Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development?
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12. Discussion Questions, continued
What learning processes (e.g., classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning) do you think shaped Malcolm X’s personality? Identify specific examples to illustrate how these learning processes shaped his personality.
Psychology 305

13. Discussion Questions, continued
Prior to his imprisonment, Malcolm X did not adhere to a separatist view regarding race relations. However, after his imprisonment, he did adhere to a separatist view. How can Dollard and Miller’s social-cognitive learning theory of personality be used to explain this change in Malcolm X’s attitudes and behaviour?
Apply Bandura’s model of reciprocal determinism to an event in Malcolm X’s life.
Psychology 305

14. Adler’s Concepts
1. Inferiority feelings: Feelings of inadequacy that arise during childhood due to our dependency upon others.
2. Superiority strivings: Efforts to compensate for inferiority feelings; reflects the desire to be competent in whatever one strives to do and to actualize one’s potential; continuously cycles with inferiority feelings to produce the “great upward drive.”
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15. 3. Lifestyles: The primary means by which one attempts
3. Lifestyles: The primary means by which one attempts to compensate for inferiority feelings (i.e., strive for superiority); established in childhood.
Adler identified 4 primary lifestyles—1 “healthy” lifestyle and 3 “mistaken” lifestyles:
The socially useful lifestyle: Characterized by social interest and activity and a desire to resolve problems in a socially responsible way; a “healthy” lifestyle.
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16. The ruling lifestyle: Characterized by little social
The ruling lifestyle: Characterized by little social interest or cultural perception and a desire to dominate or rule others; a “mistaken” lifestyle.
The getting lifestyle: Characterized by greed and an excessive dependency upon others; a “mistaken” lifestyle.
The avoiding lifestyle: Characterized by inactivity, a lack of interest, and a fear of involvement; a “mistaken” lifestyle.
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17. 4. Inferiority complex: A psychological condition that
4. Inferiority complex: A psychological condition that exists when one is overwhelmed by inferiority feelings; may result in stagnation (i.e., lack of strivings) or in overcompensation (i.e., inappropriate strivings).
5. Superiority complex: A psychological condition that exists when one concentrates too much on his or her own need to strive while ignoring the needs of others. Such an individual tends to be vain, domineering, and arrogant.
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18. Loevinger’s Stages of Ego Development
1. Symbiotic stage: Work to acquire a sense of separation between self and nonself.
2. Impulsive stage: Assertion of self through impulse expression; relationships with others are exploitive, for own needs.
3. Self-protective stage: Begins to grasp rules, but only as guides to avoid punishment; no moral sense; personal expediency, opportunism.
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19. 4. Conformist stage: Rules adopted because they are
4. Conformist stage: Rules adopted because they are accepted by group; concerned with appearing properly to the social group.
5. Self-aware stage: Realization that rules have exceptions; increased introspection, with increased awareness that own behaviour isn’t perfect.
6. Conscientious stage: Use of self-evaluated standards rather than group’s norms; realization that events have multiple meanings.
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20. 7. Individualistic stage: Clearer sense of individuality;
7. Individualistic stage: Clearer sense of individuality; greater tolerance for individual differences.
8. Autonomous stage: Realization of interdependency among people; awareness of conflicts among one’s own needs; recognition of others’ need for autonomy; search for self-fulfillment.
9. Integrated stage: Conflicting demands have been resolved; not just tolerance, but intense appreciation of others’ viewpoints.
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21. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
1. Infancy
Crisis: Basic trust vs. mistrust Strength: Hope
2. Early childhood
Crisis: Autonomy vs. shame and doubt Strength: Willpower
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22. Crisis: Initiative vs. guilt Strength: Purpose
3. Preschool
Crisis: Initiative vs. guilt Strength: Purpose
4. School age
Crisis: Industry vs. Inferiority Strength: Competence
5. Adolescence
Crisis: Identity vs. identity confusion Strength: Fidelity
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23. Crisis: Intimacy vs. isolation Strength: Love
6. Young adulthood
Crisis: Intimacy vs. isolation Strength: Love
7. Adulthood
Crisis: Generativity vs. stagnation Strength: Care
8. Old Age
Crisis: Integrity vs. despair Strength: Wisdom
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24. Example of Classical Conditioning
Negative emotions (UR; e.g., anxiety)
Racism, social isolation (US)
Reflexive
Highly similar
Repeatedly paired
Presence at school (CS)
Negative emotions (CR)
Learned
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25. Example of Classical Conditioning
Negative emotions (UR; e.g., anger, fury)
Death of father, burning of home (US)
Reflexive
Highly similar
Repeatedly paired
Presence of “whites” (KKK) (CS)
Negative emotions (CR)
Learned
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