1. PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
In last lecture examined
Phase 1: Concept Development
Phase 2: System-Level Design
Contrasted Phase 1 and Phase 2 for ‘product’ vs. ‘research project’
Check website for many more references (9 examples on line)
Emphasis now on Phase 3: Detailed Design
Simplified calculations to guide Phase 3

2. WING IN GROUND EFFECT PROJECT
Boeing has recently taken interest in the WIG phenomenon and proposed a concept for a massive craft to meet a US Army need for a long-range heavy transport.
Called the Pelican, the 500 ft (153 m) span vehicle would carry up to 2,800,000 lb (1,270,060 kg) of cargo while cruising as low as 20 ft (6 m) over water or up to 20,000 ft (6,100 m) over land.
Unlike the Soviet concepts, the Pelican would not operate from water, but from conventional runways using a series of 76 wheels as landing gear.

3. EXAMPLES: EKRANOPLAN CRITERIA FOR SUCCESS
Optimize weight vs. takeoff distance ratio: > 111 kg/m (Boeing 747, ref [8])
Comments:
Clear target number with literature substantiation
Never actually done in report
How can such a calculation be performed?
Example 2:
Have a Lift vs. Drag: > 150
At what condition?
Why do you need 150?
Range, endurance calculations to show the benefit of L/D=150

4. EXAMPLES: EKRANOPLAN CRITERIA FOR SUCCESS
Achieve a transportation efficiency: >> 0.23 kg/hour/kW (modern turbo-diesel barge, ref [6])
Comments:
A clear goal, a clear number that is a target
Corroborate with literature
How do measure that?
Example 4:
Achieve good cost effective design
What does ‘good’ mean?
How do you determine if it is ‘cost effective’?
‘Cost effective’ by whose standards?

5. EXAMPLES: EKRANOPLAN Objective/Goal Statements:
“Data gathered from our wind tunnel testing will hopefully allow the team to develop a system of permanent equations that will allow us to mathematically show why ground effect vehicles are more efficient and which designers can use to design WIG vehicles in the future.”
“Use CFD to model ground effect”
Comments:
Great idea, correlate data from wind tunnel and experiment to develop new predictive methods
Already been shown why and how ground effect augments lift
Wind tunnel testing is effective, but can some simply models be developed to understand the phenomena and make predictions?
How does the wing tunnel testing and CFD fit together?

6. EKRANOPLAN: POTENTIAL ANALYSIS
Consider the potential flow generated by a pair of cylinders located in a cross-stream, V∞, each with radius R, and located at x = 0, y = ±A (A>R).
Write the y and f for this flow, and derive the velocity components. Show that there exists a plane of symmetry at y = 0 where vertical velocity is zero.
Show that there exists a streamline that runs along this axis of symmetry. Note: This streamline can be used to represent a ‘ground plane’, and thus this potential flow combination – a source doublet and its ‘image doublet’ represents a cylinder in ground effect.
Derive expressions for the coefficients of lift and drag for the cylinder located about the ground. How do they vary as the cylinder gets closer to the ground (i.e., the cylinder and its image get closer together)?
What are implications of this results for an airplane trying to land on a runway? A V∞ R

7. SPACECRAFT SLOSH
Boeing’s Delta IV Heavy
Upper-stages of expendable vehicle fleet undergo orbital maneuvers that may lead to large propellant slosh motions
Slosh motion can affect vehicle performance
Example: reorientation maneuver may cause liquid propellant to exit through pressure relief valves designated for gas venting leading to uncontrollable dynamic instability
Example: cryogenic liquid may splash onto hot sections of tank side walls and dome leading to large boil-off of propellant
Example: NEAR spacecraft interrupted its insertion burn when fuel reaction was larger than anticipated. Prevented NEAR from orbiting Eros and delayed mission
Example: Does Orion need baffles?
Models needed to predict impacts of propellant slosh for various mission scenarios
Limited database to benchmark CFD codes in very low-gravity (low-acceleration) environments
Lockheed Martin’s Atlas V 401

8. SIMPLE SLOSH
Actual situation looks highly complex: droplets, wave break-up, non-uniform surface thickness, does not look exactly the same with time (transient behavior)
However, simple models capture the general behavior of lateral slosh
Two simple models (1) Pendulum Model, and (2) Spring-Mass Model

9. MODEL VS. DATA COMPARISON
Comparison of simple model with experimental data: ± 10 – 20 %

10. EXAMPLE OF CFD CALCULATION
CFD provides additional details
Important to ask whether or not you need these details for the level of fidelity required
Before you do a CFD calculation, ask yourself:
Why am I doing this?
Is there a cheaper, faster way to get what I want?

11. REAL NEED FOR CFD

12. OTHER SPRING-MASS-DAMPER SYSTEMS
Provides: damping ratio, natural frequency, sensitivity to various parameters
Numerous models in existence: car suspension, microphone, control systems, electromechanical systems, etc.

13. MESSAGES FROM SLOSH EXAMPLE
When natural event looks very complicated, try to look at basic physics of what is happening
Try to determine if small details are important or not
Which small details can be neglected (for the time being)
Spring-Mass-Damper models are extremely powerful
Simple to develop and solve
Economical in terms of time and money
How do you know if it is right or wrong?
What are the weak parts?
How do you test it?
When do you trust it?

14. PROPELLER EXAMPLE
Many student projects have looked at variable angle propellers for UAVs
Various levels of complexity to model such a flow → various levels of accuracy result
What level of accuracy do you need?

15. SIMPLE PROPELLER: ACTUATOR DISK THEORY
Neglect rotation imparted to the flow.
Assume the Mach number is low so that the flow behaves as an incompressible fluid.
Assume the flow outside the propeller streamtube has constant stagnation pressure (no work is imparted to it).
Assume that the flow is steady. Smear out the moving blades so they are one thin steady disk that has approximately the same effect on the flow as the moving blades (the ``actuator disk'').
Across the actuator disk, assume that the pressure changes discontinuously, but the velocity varies in a continuous manner.

16. MESSAGES FROM PROPELLER EXAMPLE
When using CFD, be able to say in your report:
We needed a CFD model/solution to get ___________
The results of the CFD solution were used to __________
A simpler model was insufficient because it did not capture ________
When using a simplified model, be able to say in your report:
The assumptions in the simplified model are 1) __________, 2) _________
Assumption (1) is valid because __________
Assumption (2) is valid because __________
The model was developed to predict _________
The results of the model were used to _________
This model does not capture the details of __________

17. COMBUSTION KINETICS EXAMPLE
Many prior senior design projects involved combustion
Consider Methane Combustion
This looks awfully simple – when written as a 1-step process
Equation says nothing about how long the process takes to happen
Approach taken by team from in project goals:
“Model kinetics of combustion process…”
CH4 + 2O N2 → CO2 + 2H2O N2 + heat
Fuel
Air
Products

18. METHANE COMBUSTION (STEPS: 1-92)

19. METHANE COMBUSTION (STEPS: 93-177)

20. METHANE COMBUSTION (STEPS: 178-262)

21. METHANE COMBUSTION (STEPS: 263-279)

22. GLOBAL AND QUASI-GLOBAL MECHANISMS
‘One-step mechanism’
Parameters: A, Ea/R, m and n
Chosen to provide best fit agreement between
Experimental and predicted flame temperatures, as well as flammability limits
Can be implemented in Excel

23. MESSAGES FROM KINETICS EXAMPLE
Don’t just perform literature review on your global problem – nothing might exist
Literature review on specific pieces
When specific pieces are put together, then you have something new
Knowing what is good enough
Do you need all 279 steps?
Be able to articulate why you do, or why you don’t
What are the strengths and weaknesses of a global 1-step mechanism?

24. COMBUSTOR EXAMPLE
Commercial
PW4000
Combustor
Military F
Afterburner

25. MAJOR COMBUSTOR COMPONENTS
Turbine
Compressor

26. MAJOR COMBUSTOR COMPONENTS
Fuel
Combustion Products
Turbine
Air
Compressor
Key Questions:
Why is combustor configured this way?
What sets overall length, volume and geometry of device?

27. APPLICATION TO COMBUSTION SYSTEM MODELING
Turbine
Air
Primary
Zone
f~0.3
f ~ 1.0
T~2500 K
Compressor
Conceptual model of a gas-turbine combustor using 2 WSRs and 1 PFR

28. GAS TURBINE ENGINE COMBUSTOR MODEL
Consider the primary combustion zone of a gas turbine as a well-stirred reactor with volume of 900 cm3. Kerosene (C12H24) and stoichiometric air at 298 K flow into the reactor, which is operating at 10 atm and 2,000 K
The following assumptions may be employed to simplify the problem
Neglect dissociation and assume that the system is operating adiabatically
LHV of fuel is 42,500 KJ/kg
Use one-step global kinetics, which is of the following form
Ea, is 30,000 cal/mol = 125,600 J/mol
Concentrations in units of mol/cm3
Find fractional amount of fuel burned, h
Find fuel flow rate
Find residence time inside reactor, tres

29. MESSAGES FROM COMBUSTOR EXAMPLE
Complex physical systems can often be reduced to 1D systems
If you didn’t do the literature review, you would have no idea that such models already exist
Make use of models that already exist – there is no need to reinvent such models when they are already in place (and tested, and benchmarked)
Inventing a new models vs. using one that is already in existence

30. OVERALL MESSAGES Why am I developing a model?
What do I need to get out of it?
How will that result be used for the project?
Can I assume the problem is steady-state?
Can I remove time?
Is the situation that I am looking at replaceable by a static one?
Can I model the problem as 1-D?
What is the dominant direction in which things are happening?
Find similar situations in text books
Don’t expect to find the exact model of what you are doing
Add levels of complexity sequentially – don’t go for the homerun ball right away
Must understand each physical process on their own before looking at interaction
Shows progress

31. HOW DOES IT REALLY WORK?
CFD
Experiments
Simplified
Models

32. HOW DOES IT REALLY WORK?
CFD
Experiments
Simplified
Models

33. HOW DOES IT REALLY WORK? CFD Experiments Simplified Models
Everyone trusts the experiment except the person that ran it
No one trusts the CFD except the person that ran it

34. SPACE STATION CONCEPTUAL DRAWING