1. How does information become store in LTM ?
Encoding : the process of acquiring information and transferring it into memory
Coding : the form with which information is represented
Retrieval : the process of transferring information from LTM back into working memory

2. Chapter summery 10
The process of acquiring information and transferring it into memory is called encoding.
Encoding therefore refers to the process used to get information into LTM.

3. Encoding & Rehearsal Rehearsal :repeating it over and over
Maintenance rehearsal :
helps maintain information in memory
Elaborative rehearsal :
transferring information into LTM

4. Maintenance rehearsal
When you repeat a phone number you just looked up in the phone book
Repeating a number without any consideration of meaning or making connections with other information
Rehearsal can keep information in working memory
Then forgetting it right after you place the call

5. Elaborative rehearsal
think about the meaning of an item
make connections between the item and something you know
An effective way of transferring information into LTM

6. Chapter summery 11
Some mechanisms of encoding are more effective than others in transferring information into LTM.
Maintenance rehearsal helps maintain information in STM but is not an effective way of transferring information into LTM.
Elaborative rehearsal is a good way to establish LTM.

7. Levels-of-processing theory
Idea of LOP ( levels-of-processing ) : 1972 Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart
Depend on how information is encoded
Memory depends on how information is programmed (encoded) into the mind

8. Remembering lists Part 1 : counting the number of vowels
Cover up the list below :
chair, mathematics, elephant, lamp,
car, elevator, thoughtful, cactus
Uncover each word by one
Count the number of vowels in each word
Go right on to the next one

9. Remembering lists Part 1 : counting the number of vowels
Now cover the list
Count backward by 3’s from 100
(100,97,94,91,88,85,82,79,76)
When you get to 76
Write down the words you remember

10. Remembering lists Part 2 : visualizing an item’s function
Cover the list below
Umbrella, exercise, forgiveness, rock,
hamburger, sunlight, coffee, bottle
Uncover each word one by one
Visualize how useful the item might be if you were stranded on uninhabited island

11. Remembering lists Part 2 : visualizing an item’s function
Cover the list
Count backward by 3’s from 99
(99,96,93,90,87,84,81,78,75)
When you reach 75
Write down the word you remember

12. Remembering lists Which procedure resulted in better memory?
Counting the number of vowels
Visualizing an item’s function : better
a meaningful connection has been made between an item and something else

13. levels-of-processing
Idea of LOP : Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart 1972
Memory depends on the depth of processing that an item receives
Shallow processing
Deep processing

14. Shallow processing Focused on physical features such as
the number of vowels in a word
Whether the word is printed in lowercase or capital letters
Repeated to keep it in memory
But without considering its meaning or its connection

15. Deep processing Focusing on an item’s meaning
Considering how an item might be useful in a particular situation
Creating an image of the item in relation to another item
Involves close attention to meaning
Relating it to something else

16. Depth of processing Shallow processing : Deep processing :
involves little attention to meaning
Occurs during maintenance rehearsal
Deep processing :
involves close attention to meaning
Occurs during elaborative rehearsal

17. Levels-of-Processing theory
Prediction of better memory
Deep processing better than shallow processing
Elaborative rehearsal deeper than maintenance rehearsal

18. Varying depth of processing
Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving 1975
How depth of processing can be varied by asking different kinds of questions about a word
A question is presented
Followed by a word
Then the participant’s response (memory test)
Shallow processing : asking question about the word physical characteristics
Deeper processing : asking the word’s sound
Deepest processing : a task that involves the word’s meaning

19. Varying depth of processing
Shallow processing : a question about physical features of the word
Q : Is the word printed in capital letters ?
Word : bird
Deeper processing : a question about rhyming
Q : Does the word rhyme with train ?
Word : pain
Deepest processing : a fill-in-blanks question
Q : Does the word fit into the sentence
“ He saw a ________ on the street ” ?
Word : car

20. Varying depth of processing
Deeper processing is associated with better memory

21. Chapter summery 12
Levels of processing theory states that memory depends on how information is encoded or programmed into the mind.
According to this theory, shallow processing is not as effective as deep processing.
An experiment by Craik and Tulving showed that memory was better following deep processing than following shallow processing.

22. Transfer-appropriate processing
Memory performance is enhanced if
type of task at encoding matches
the type of task at retrieval
Memory performance is sometimes determined
not by depth of processing
but by the relationship between
how information is encoded
and how it is retrieved later

23. Transfer-appropriate processing
Donald Morris and coworkers 1977
Participants were presented with 32 sentences during the encoding part of the experiment
Tasks during encoding
The meaning task
The rhyming task

24. Transfer-appropriate processing
Meaning-task encoding
Participants heard fill-in-the-blanks sentences in which the word blank replaced the target word
Participants heard the target word
Participants had to response “ yes ” if they thought it fit into the sentence
Participants had to response “ no ” if they thought it didn’t fit into the sentence

25. Transfer-appropriate processing
Meaning-task encoding
“ The blank rode the bicycle ”
Target word : boy
Answer : would be “ yes ”

26. Transfer-appropriate processing
Rhyming-task encoding
Participants heard a statement involving rhyming, in which the word blank replaced the target word
Participants heard the target word
Participants had to respond “ yes ” if the statement was correct
Participants had to respond “ no ” if the statement was not correct

27. Transfer-appropriate processing
Rhyming-task encoding
“ Blank rhymes with toy ”
Target word : boy
Answer : would be “ yes ”

28. Transfer-appropriate processing
Donald Morris and coworkers 1977
Encoding task ( same 32 target words )
meaning group : 32 target words
rhyming group : 32 target words
Retrieval task ( both groups test both )
Standard recognition test in retrieval
Rhyming recognition test in retrieval

29. Transfer-appropriate processing
Standard recognition test in retrieval
Both groups presented with the 32 same target word and 32 new words
Indicate whether a word had been one of the target words during acquisition ?
Result : meaning-task encoding group better
Meaning task would result in deeper processing than rhyming task

30. Transfer-appropriate processing
Rhyming recognition test in retrieval
Both groups presented with the 32 same target word and 32 new words
Indicate whether each word rhymed with one of the words they had heard during acquisition ?
Results : rhyming-task encoding group better
Meaning task would result in deeper processing than rhyming task
LOP cannot explained this results

31. Transfer-appropriate processing
How well the conditions at
encoding and retrieval match
The key to the better performance
of the rhyming group was
transfer-appropriate processing
both encoding and retrieval
were based on sound

32. Chapter summery 13
Transfer appropriate processing refer to the finding that memory performance is enhanced when the type of coding that occurs during acquisition matches the type of retrieval that occurs during a memory test.
The result of an experiment by Morris support this idea.

33. Additional factors that aid encoding
Forming connections with other information
Generating information
Organizing information

34. Forming connections with other
Task : Remembering the word chicken
Which sentence do you think would result in the best memory ? ( A = 2 )
She cooked the chicken
The great bird swooped down and carried off the struggling chicken

35. Forming connections with other
Craik and Tulving 1975
Memory is much better when the word is presented within the complex sentence
Complex sentence creates more connections between the word to be remembered and other things
These other things act as cues that help us retrieve the word

36. Forming connections with other
Gordon Bower and David Winzenz 1970
Imagery can help create connections
They presented a list of 15 pairs of nouns, such as boat and tree, to participants for 5 seconds each
Repetition group : silently repeat the pairs
Imagery group : form the mental picture in which the two items were interacting
Recall all
Results : imagery group superior

37. Imagery can help create connections
Repetition group : silently repeat the pairs
Imagery group : form the mental picture in which the two items were interacting
Results : imagery group superior

38. Forming connections with other
T.B. Rogers and coworkers 1979
Self-reference effect
Memory is better if you are asked to relate a word to yourself
Participants were presented with a cue question and then a word ( shy , outgoing )
Cue question :
Is the word long ?
Does the word describe you ?
Apply the cue question to the word
Answer yes or no
Recall for the word that resulted in a yes response
Results : better memory for word that describe themselves

39. Self-reference effect
Memory is better if you are asked to relate a word to yourself

40. Self-reference effect
Retrieval cues
The self provides information that become linked to the word and that make it easier to remember later
Deeper processing
Word describes you results in deeper processing

41. Generating information
Generation effect :
Generating material yourself, rather than passively receiving it, enhances learning and retention.
Norman Slameka and Peter Graf 1978
Participants study a list of word pair in two different ways
Read group : read these pairs of related words
King-crown , horse-saddle , lamp-shade
Generate group : fill in the blank with a word that is related to the first word.
( king-cr___ , horse-sa___ , lamp-sh___ , etc. )

42. Generating information
Norman Slameka and Peter Graf 1978
After study task
Presented with the first word in each pair
Indicate the word that went with it
Results : generate group learned 28% more word pair than read group

43. Organizing information
The memory system uses organization to access information efficiently.
Reading a list
Get paper and pen ready
Read the following words
Apple, desk, shoe, sofa, plum, chair, cherry, coat, lamp, pants, grape, hat, melon, table, gloves
Then cover them and write them down as many as possible

44. Organizing information
Look at the list you created
Notice whether similar items are group together
Apple, cherry, plum
Shoe, coat, pants
Remembering words in a particular category may serve as a retrieval cue for other words in that category
Create a recall list that is more organized than the original list that you read

45. Organizing information
Gordon Bower and coworkers 1969
Presenting material to be learned in a “tree” which organized a number of words according to categories

46. Organizing information
Gordon Bower and coworkers 1969
Organized 4 trees
Participants studies trees for minerals , animals , clothing , transportation for 1 minute each
Recall from all 4 trees
Results : recalled an average of 73 words from all 4 trees ( well organized )

47. Organizing information
Gordon Bower and coworkers 1969
Randomized 4 trees
Participants studies and recall
Results : remember only 21 words
Conclusion : organizing material to be remembered results in substantially better recall

48. Organizing information
Balloon experiment
John Bransford and Marcia Johnson 1972
Read a following passage :
If the balloon popped, the sound wouldn’t be able to carry since everything would be too far away from the correct floor. A closed window would also prevent the sound from carrying, since most buildings tend to be well insulated. Since the whole operation depends on the steady flow of electricity, a break in the middle of a wire would also cause problems. Of course, the fellow could shout, but the human voice is not loud enough to carry that far. An additional problem is that the string could break on the instrument. Then there would be no accompaniment to the message. It is clear that the best situation would involves less distance. Then there would be fewer potential problems. With face to face contact, the least number of things could go wrong.

49. Organizing information
Balloon experiment
John Bransford and Marcia Johnson 1972
What was that all about ?
Found it extremely difficult to remember this passage

50. Organizing information
Balloon experiment
John Bransford and Marcia Johnson 1972
Group : saw the picture before read a passage
Another group : saw the picture after read a passage
Compare both : first group remember more
Key : organization  easier to comprehend
Picture : provides a framework that helps the reader link one sentence to the next to create a meaningful story
How the ability to remember material depends on how that material programmed into the mind

51. Balloon experiment
If the balloon popped, the sound wouldn’t be able to carry since everything would be too far away from the correct floor. A closed window would also prevent the sound from carrying, since most buildings tend to be well insulated. Since the whole operation depends on the steady flow of electricity, a break in the middle of a wire would also cause problems. Of course, the fellow could shout, but the human voice is not loud enough to carry that far. An additional problem is that the string could break on the instrument. Then there would be no accompaniment to the message. It is clear that the best situation would involves less distance. Then there would be fewer potential problems. With face to face contact, the least number of things could go wrong.

52. Chapter summery 14 Additional factors that aid encoding are
Finding connections with other information ( the “chicken” sentence experiment; creating images; the self-reference effect )
Generating information ( the generation effect )
Organizing information ( spontaneous organization during recall; Bower’s “tree” experiment; the “Balloon experiment” illustrating what happens when organization is difficult ).

53. Factor that aid encoding
Maintenance rehearsal : shallow processing
Elaborative rehearsal : deep processing
Transfer-appropriate processing
Figure 6.18: The organized tree for the material about encoding presented in this chapter.

54. How are memories stored in the brain ?
Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb 1948
Learning and memory are represented in the brain by physiological changes that take place at the synapse.

55. Information storage at the synapse
Synapses : the small spaces between the end of one neuron and the cell body or dendrite of another neuron
Synaptic transmission : When signals reach the end of a neuron, they cause neurotransmitters to be released onto the next neuron

56. Information storage at the synapse
Memory
is represented by changes at the synapse
Experience activate the changes of synapse
Causing structural changes
Greater transmitter release
Increased firing

57. Information storage at the synapse
Long – term potentiation ( LTP )
Enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation
Repeated stimulation causes not only structural changes but also enhanced responding

58. Information storage at the synapse

59. Chapter summery 15
Research on the physiological basis of memory indicates that the formation of memories is associated with structural changes at the synapse.
These structural changes are then translated into enhanced nerve firing, as indicated by long – term potentiation.

60. Forming memories in the brain : Fragility of new memories
Graded amnesia : amnesia is more severe for events or learning that was closer in time to the injury
Retrograde amnesia : amnesia before injury , the loss of memory for what has happened prior to the trauma
Anterograde amnesia : amnesia after injury

61. Retrograde amnesia As a football player runs downfield on a kickoff
He is hit hard enough to suffer a concussion
Sitting on the sidelines after the play
He remembers lining up for the kickoff
But doesn’t remember running down the field or getting hit

62. Electroconvulsive therapy
People receive shock treatment to help relieve severe depression
A brief electrical current is passed through the brain, causing loss of consciousness for a few minutes
They can’t remember things that happened just before the shock
Amnesia caused by ECT is generally temporary, so most of the lost memories are eventually regained

63. H.M. Anterograde amnesia
Removal of H.M.’s hippocampus made it impossible for him to form new memories
Retregrade amnesia (partially)
Amnesia extended back for about years prior to his operation
He could remember events that occurred before then

64. Graded amnesia
H.M. could remember events from his childhood, but apparently not with as much clarity and detail as a person without brain damage
Graded amnesia = amnesia is most severe for events that occurred just prior to the injury and becomes less severe for earlier, more remote events

65. Forming memories in the brain : Fragility of new memories
Retrograde amnesia
Head trauma from football playing
Electroconvulsive therapy ( ECT )
Anterograde amnesia
Brain surgery : removed hippocampus

66. Forming memories in the brain : Fragility of new memories

67. Forming memories in the brain : Fragility of new memories
Graded amnesia (retrograde amnesia)
Memory for recent events is more fragile than memory for remote events

68. Forming memories in the brain : Fragility of new memories
Consolidation
Transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption
A consolidation process must occur before memories become resistant to being disrupted

69. Chapter summery 16
Concussions and electroconvulsive therapy can cause retrograde amnesia.
This retrograde amnesia is graded, so that memory loss is greatest for events that happened closest in time to the trauma.
This indicates that newly formed memories are fragile.