1. 8 Personal Technology 8.1 Managing Files: Basic Concepts
Chapter
Personal Technology
8.1 Managing Files: Basic Concepts
8.2 Database Management Systems
8.3 Database Models
8.4 Data Mining
8.5 Databases & The Digital Economy
8.6 Using Databases to Help Make Decisions
8.7 Artificial Intelligence
8.8 The Ethics of Using Databases

2. Managing Files: Basic Concepts
Basic Concepts: What is a database? What is a primary key? What are the benefits of database management systems? (pg )
Database Models: What are the different types of database models? How do they differ? (pg )
Data Mining: What is data mining? Why is it important? What are the steps involved in the data-mining process? Give examples of data mining applications. (pg )
E-Business & E-Commerce: What are the three types of e-commerce? (pg )
Information Systems: What are the different types of computer-based information systems? Explain each of them. (pg )
Artificial Intelligence: Explain each of the research areas in AI. Explain the three components of an expert system. What is the difference between weak AI and strong AI? What is the Turing Test? (pg )

3. Managing Files: Basic Concepts
A DATABASE is a logically organized collection of related data designed and built for a specific purpose
Data is stored hierarchically for easier storage and retrieval
Files: collections of related records
Records: collections of related fields
Field: unit of data containing 1 or more
characters
Character: a letter number or special
character made of bits
Bit: a 0 or 1

4. Managing Files: Basic Concepts
Key Field – the field that identifies a record
Often an identifying number, such as social security number
Primary keys must be unique
Keys are used to pick records out of a database
Unique keys make records stand out from each other
If two records had the same key, then you might not pick the correct one
Nonprimary keys are used to sort records in different ways
Foreign keys are fields that appear in two different tables and are used to relate one table to another

5. Managing Files: Basic Concepts
This example shows a sample database in Microsoft Access. Products is a table. ProductID is the primary key of the Product table. ProductID is also a foreign key in the Orders table

6. Managing Files: Basic Concepts
Program files are files containing software instructions
Source program files are written by the software developer in the programming language
Double-clicking on them won’t run them
They have file extensions like .cpp, .jav, .bas
Executable files are program files translated so they can be executed on the computer
Double-clicking on them will cause them to run
They have file extensions like .exe or .com

7. Managing Files: Basic Concepts
Data files are files that contain data such as words, numbers, pictures, or sounds
These are the files that are used in databases
They have extensions such as .txt .mdb, and .xls
Graphics files have extensions like .tiff, .jpeg, and .png
Audio files have extensions such as .mp3, .wav, and .mid
Animation/video files have extensions such as .qt, .mpg, .avi, and .rm
Data files are often compressed to save space and transmit them faster
Compression removes repetitive elements from a file

8. Database Management Systems
Software written specifically to control the structure of a database and access to the data
Reduced data redundancy
Redundant data is stored in multiple places, which causes problems keeping all the copies current
Improved data integrity
Means the data is accurate, consistent, and up to date
Increased security
Limits who can create, read, update, and delete the data
Ease of data maintenance
Offer validation checks, backup utilities, and procedures for data inserting, updating, and deletion

9. Database Management Systems 3 Principal Components
Data Dictionary
A repository that stores the data definitions and descriptions of the structure of the data and the database
DBMS Utilities
Programs that allow you to maintain the database by creating, editing, deleting data, records, and files
Also include automated backup and recovery
Report Generator
Program for producing an on-screen or printed document form all or part of a database

10. Database Management Systems Database Administrator
Database Administrator (DBA)
A high-paid, responsible position within an organization
Coordinates all related activities and needs for an organization’s database
Ensures the database’s
Recoverability
Integrity
Security
Availability
Reliability
Performance
Discussion Question: Did you know that 93% of companies that lost their data center for 10 days or more due to a disaster filed for bankruptcy within a year?

11. Managing Files: Basic Concepts
Basic Concepts: What is a database? What is a primary key? What are the benefits of database management systems? (pg )
Database Models: What are the different types of database models? How do they differ? (pg )
Data Mining: What is data mining? Why is it important? What are the steps involved in the data-mining process? Give examples of data mining applications. (pg )
E-Business & E-Commerce: What are the three types of e-commerce? (pg )
Information Systems: What are the different types of computer-based information systems? Explain each of them. (pg )
Artificial Intelligence: Explain each of the research areas in AI. Explain the three components of an expert system. What is the difference between weak AI and strong AI? What is the Turing Test? (pg )

12. Database Models Hierarchical database Network database
Relational database
Object- oriented database
Multidimensio nal database
Fields or records are arranged in a family tree, with child records subordinate to parent or higher-level records
Like a hierarchical database, but each child record can have more than one parent record
Relates, or connects, data in different files through the use of a key, or common data element
Uses objects (software written in small, reusable chunks) as elements within database files
Models data as facts, dimensions, or numerical measures for use in the interactive analysis of large amounts of data

13. Database Models Hierarchical Databases
Fields or records are arranged in related groups resembling a family tree with child (low-level) records subordinate to parent (high-level) records
Root record is the parent record at the top of the database, and data is accessed through the hierarchy
Oldest and simplest; used in mainframes

14. Database Models Network Database
Similar to a hierarchical database, but each child record can have more than one parent record
Used principally with mainframe computers
Requires the database structure to be defined in advance

15. Database Models Relational Database
Relates or connects data in different files through the use of a key, or common data element
Examples are Oracle, Informix, Sybase
Data exists independently of how it is physically stored
Users don’t need to know data structure to use the database
Uses SQL (structured query language) to create, modify, maintain, and query the data
Query by Example uses sample records or forms to allow users to define the qualifications for choosing records

16. Database Models Object-oriented Databases
Use “objects”, software written in small, manageable chunks, as elements within data files
An object consists of
Data in any form, including audio, graphics, and video
Instructions on the action to be taken with the data
Examples include FastObjects, GemStone, Objectivity DB, Jasmine Object Database, and KE Express
Types include
Web database
Hypermedia database

17. Database Models Multidimensional Database
Models data as facts, dimensions, or numerical answers for use in the interactive analysis of large amounts of data for decision-making purposes
Allows users to ask questions in colloquial English
Use OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) software to provide answers to complex database queries

18. Managing Files: Basic Concepts
Basic Concepts: What is a database? What is a primary key? What are the benefits of database management systems? (pg )
Database Models: What are the different types of database models? How do they differ? (pg )
Data Mining: What is data mining? Why is it important? What are the steps involved in the data-mining process? Give examples of data mining applications. (pg )
E-Business & E-Commerce: What are the three types of e-commerce? (pg )
Information Systems: What are the different types of computer-based information systems? Explain each of them. (pg )
Artificial Intelligence: Explain each of the research areas in AI. Explain the three components of an expert system. What is the difference between weak AI and strong AI? What is the Turing Test? (pg )

19. Data Mining
Is the computer-assisted process of sifting through and analyzing vast amounts of data to extract hidden patterns and meaning and to discover new knowledge
Data is fed into a Data Warehouse through the following steps
Identify and connect to data sources
Perform data fusion and data cleansing
Obtain both data and meta-data (data about the data)
Transport data and meta-data to the Data Warehouse
Data Warehouse is a special database that shows detailed and summary data from multiple sources

20. Data Mining
Methods for searching for patterns in the data and interpreting the results
Regression analysis
Develops a formula to fit patterns in the data that has been extracted
Formula is applied to other data sets to predict future trends
Classification analysis
A statistical pattern recognition process that is applied to data sets with more than just numerical data

21. Data Mining Applications include
A phone company identifying customers with large bills, who were really small businesses trying to pay the cheaper residential rate
A coach in the Gymnastics Federation used it to discover what long-term factors contributed to athletes’ performance
Retail stores use it to predict future purchase patterns to help them choose which products to stock for the future

22. Databases & The Digital Economy
E-Commerce
The buying and selling of products and services through computer networks
Examples of some e-tailers (electronic retailers):
sells books and music online
sells candy online
connects buyers with sellers online using online auctions

23. Databases & The Digital Economy
Innovative e-tailer technologies make online shopping easier
One-click option
Allows you to click on an item and immediately go to the check-out process
360-degree images
Allow you to see all sides of an item
Order tracking
Bar codes are assigned to items being shipped that allow customers to check shipping progress via the internet
Shop bots
Are programs that help users search for a particular product of service

24. Databases & The Digital Economy
Types of E-Commerce
Business-to-business (B2B)
A business sells to other businesses using the internet or a private network to cut transaction costs and increase efficiencies
Business-to-consumer (B2C)
A business sells goods or services to consumers
Consumer-to-consumer (C2C)
Consumers sell goods or services directly to other consumers with the help of a third party, such as eBay.

25. Using Databases to Help Make Decisions
What are the qualities of good information?
Correct and verifiable
Complete yet concise
Cost effective
Current
Accessible

26. Using Databases to Help Make Decisions
Most organizations have 6 departments to which information must flow
Research and development
Production (or operations)
Marketing and sales
Accounting and finance
Human resources (personnel)
Information systems (IS)
Information flows horizontally between departments

27. Using Databases to Help Make Decisions
Besides the 6 departments, many organizations also have 3 levels of management
Strategic-level management
Top managers concerned with strategic or long-term planning and decisions
Tactical-level management
Middle level managers who make decisions to implement the strategic goals set for the organization
Operational-level management
Low-level supervisors make daily operational decisions
Information flows vertically between management levels

28. Using Databases to Help Make Decisions
Decentralized Organizations – a new structure
Employees increasingly telecommute – some staff have no desk or office at work
Employees communicate with each other more via than in person
Companies use Groupware CSCW (computer-supported cooperative work) systems to enable cooperative work by groups of people
The management structure is flattened as employees are given more authority to make day-to-day decisions

29. Using Databases to Help Make Decisions
6 computer-based information systems
Office information systems
Transaction processing systems
Management information systems
Decision support systems
Executive support systems
Expert systems

30. Using Databases to Help Make Decisions
Transaction Processing System (TPS)
Transactions are recorded events of routine business activities such as bills, orders, and inventory
TPS systems keep track of the transactions needed to conduct a business
TPS systems are used by operational managers to track business activities
Transactions database provides the basis for management information systems and decision support systems
Has anyone seen the movie “Office Space”? In that movie, the hero’s boss is nagging him about formatting the TPS report correctly. Now you know what TPS means!

31. Using Databases to Help Make Decisions
Management Information Systems (MIS)
Computer-based information system that uses data recorded by a TPS as input to programs that produce routine reports as output
Features
Inputs are processed transaction data. Outputs are summarized structured reports
Designed for tactical managers
Draws from all departments
Produces several kinds or reports: summary, exception, periodic, and demand

32. Using Databases to Help Make Decisions
Decision Support Systems (DSS)
Computer information system that provides a flexible tool for analysis and helps management focus on the future
Features
Inputs are external data and internal data such as summarized reports and processed transaction data. Outputs are demand reports
Mainly for tactical managers
Produces analytic models
Developed to support the types of decisions faced by managers in specific industries

33. Using Databases to Help Make Decisions
Executive Support Systems
An easy-to-use DSS made especially for strategic managers to support strategic decision-making
Might allow executives to call up predefined reports
Includes capability to browse through summarized information on all aspects of the organization and drill down for detailed data
Allows executives to perform “what-if” scenarios

34. Artificial Intelligence
Expert System
One of the most useful applications of Artificial Intelligence (AI)
AI is a group of related technologies used to develop software and machines that emulate human qualities such as learning, reasoning, communicating, seeing, and hearing
Areas include
Expert systems
Natural language processing
Intelligent agents
Virtual reality and simulation devices
Pattern recognition
Fuzzy logic
Robotics

35. Artificial Intelligence
Three components of an expert system
Knowledge base
An expert system’s database of knowledge about a particular subject
Inference engine
The software that controls the search of the expert system’s knowledge base and produces conclusions
User interface
The display screen the user used to interact with the expert system

36. Artificial Intelligence
Natural language processing
Allows users to interact with a system using normal English
The study of ways for computers to recognize and understand human language
Intelligent agents
A form of software with built-in intelligence that monitors work patterns, asks questions, and performs work tasks on your behalf
Pattern recognition
Involves a camera and software that identify recurring patterns in its vision and maps the pattern against patterns stored in a database

37. Artificial Intelligence
Fuzzy logic
A method of dealing with imprecise data and uncertainty, with problems that have many answers rather than one
Has been applied in running elevators to determine optimum times for elevators to wait
Virtual reality
A computer-generated artificial reality that projects a person into a sensation of 3-D space
Often used with simulators to represent the behavior of physical or abstract systems

38. Artificial Intelligence
Robotics
The development and study of machines that can perform work that is normally done by people
Commonly found in manufacturing plants and also in situations where people would be in danger
Nuclear plants
Assembly lines, especially paint lines
Checking for land mines
Fighting oil-well fires

39. Artificial Intelligence
Weak vs. Strong A.I.
Weak A.I. claims computers can be programmed to simulate human cognition
Strong A.I. claims that computers can think on a level that is equal to or better than humans, and can also achieve consciousness
Cyc approach to strong A.I.
A database in Austin, TX that holds 1.4 million basic truths
Plan is that Cyc will automatically make human-like assumptions
Hope is that Cyc will learn on its own
Cog approach to strong A.I.
MIT project that is a humanoid robot
Tries to identify and search for patterns instead of following rules and facts

40. Artificial Intelligence
Test for Human Intelligence
In 1950, Allen Turing predicted computers would be able to mimic human thinking
The Turing test determines whether the machine is human
Judge is in another location and doesn’t see the computer
If the computer can fool the judge, it is said to be intelligent
Ethics in A.I.
Prof. William Wallace from R.P.I. says that computer software is subtly shaped by the ethical judgments of its creators
For example, H.M.O. software used by health insurers steers doctors to cheaper procedures – but are they better?

41. The Ethics of Using Databases
Identity Theft concerns
A crime in which thieves hijack your identity and use your good credit rating to get cash, take out loans, order credit cards, and buy things in your name
Privacy concerns
Name migration: getting endless junk mail and telemarketing calls
Résumé rustling and online snooping
Government prying and spying
Discussion Question: Has any one had their identity stolen? How long did it take you to get it straightened out?