1. File Systems and Disk Management

2. File system Interface between applications and the mass storage/devices Provide abstraction for the mass storage and IO devices

3. File System abstraction Physical realityFile system abstraction Block-orientedByte-oriented Physical sectorsNamed files No protectionUsers protected from one another Data might be corrupted if machine crashes Robust to machine failures

4. File System Components Disk management organizes disk blocks into files Naming provides file names and directories to users, instead of tracks and sector numbers. Protection keeps information secure from other users Reliability protects information loss due to system crashes

5. User vs. System View of a File User level: individual files System call level: collection of bytes Operating system level: A block is a logical transfer unit Even for getc() and putc() 4 Kbytes under UNIX A sector is a physical transfer unit 512-byte sectors on disks The block size is a multiple of the sector size

6. User vs. System View of a File A process Read bytes 2 to 12 OS Fetch the block containing those bytes Return those bytes to the process

7. User vs. System View of a File A process Write bytes 2 to 12 OS Fetch the block containing those bytes Modify those bytes Write out the block

8. Ways to Access Files People use file systems Design of file systems involves understanding how people use file systems Sequential access—bytes are accessed in order Random access (direct access)—bytes are accessed in any order Content-based access—bytes are accessed according to constraints on contents e.g., return 100 bytes starting with “aye carumba”

9. File Usage Patterns Most files are small, and most references are to small files e.g.,.login and.c files Large files use up most of the disk space e.g., mp3 files Large files account for most of the bytes transferred between memory and disk Bad news for file system designers

10. File System Design Constraints High performance Efficient access of small files Many small files Used frequently Efficient access of large files Consume most disk space Account for most of the data movement

11. Some Definitions A file contains a file header, which associates the file with its disk sectors File header data block location name

12. Some Definitions A file system needs a disk allocation bitmap to represent free space on the disk, one bit per block

13. Disk Allocation Policies Contiguous allocation Link-list allocation Segment-based allocation Indexed allocation Multi-level indexed allocation Hashed allocation

14. Contiguous Allocation File blocks are stored contiguously on disk To allocate a file, Specify the file size Search the disk allocation bitmap for consecutive free blocks data block location number of blocks data block location File header

15. Pros and Cons of Contiguous Allocation + Fast sequential access + Ease of computing random file locations Adding an offset to the first disk block location - External fragmentation - Difficulty in growing files

16. Linked-List Allocation Each file block on a disk is associated with a pointer to the next block A special marker to indicate the end of the file e.g., MS-DOS file system File attribute table (FAT) data block location next block entry data block location next block entry File header

17. Pros and Cons of Linked-List Allocation + Files can grow dynamically with incremental allocation of blocks - Sequential access may suffer Blocks may not be contiguous - Horrible random accesses May involve multiple sequential searches - Unreliable A corrupted pointer can lead to loss of the remaining file

18. Indexed Allocation Uses a preallocated index to directly track the file block locations data block location File header

19. Pros and Cons of Indexed Allocation + Fast lookups and random accesses - File blocks may be scattered all over the disk Poor sequential access Needs defragmenter - Needs to reallocate index as the file size increases

20. Segment-Based Allocation Needs a segment table to allocate multiple, contiguous regions of blocks begin, end blocks File header

21. Pros and Cons of Segment-Based Allocation + Relax the requirements for large contiguous disk regions - Random accesses not as fast as pure contiguous allocation

22. Multilevel Indexed Allocation Certain index entries point to index blocks, as opposed to data blocks (e.g., Linux ext2) data block location index block location data block location index block location data block location File header 12 data block location index block location

23. Multilevel Indexed Allocation A single indirect block contains pointers to data blocks A double indirect block contains pointers to single indirect blocks A triple indirect block contains pointers to double indirect blocks

24. Pros and Cons of Multilevel Indexed Allocation + Optimized for small and large files Small files accessed through the first 12 pointers Large files can grow incrementally - Multiple disk accesses to fetch a data block under triple indirect block - Largest file size capped by the number of pointers - Arbitrary file size boundaries among levels

25. Hashed Allocation Allocates a disk block by hashing the block content to a disk location data block location Old file header data block location New file header

26. Pros and Cons of Hashed Allocation + File blocks of the same content can share the same disk block to save storage e.g., empty blocks + Good for backups and archival Small modifications to a large file result in only additional storage of the changes - Poor disk performance