1. Notre Dame extended Research Community 1 History of Machines: Big to Small Michael Crocker Valerie Goss Patrick Mooney Rebecca Quardokus

2. 2 Early “Computer” – 19 th Century Loom Programmable with punch cards Joseph Marie Jacquard

3. 3 Difference Engine/Analytic Engine Charles Babbage (1822)

4. 4 ENIAC – First Electrical Computer (1946) Programmable with switches and cables

5. 5 Smaller and Smaller Devices Vacuum Tube Discrete Transistors Integrated Circuits (1946) (1955) (1960)

6. 6 Computers Since 1971 (Intel 4004) 2-3 Thousand Transistors 1-2 Billion Transistors 10 Megabytes 1 Terabyte 92 Thousand Instr/Sec 147 Billion Instr/Sec

7. 7 Moore’s Law  A predicted trend  Predicted in 1965 (will last at least 10 years)  Density doubles every two years  Also applies to speed and storage capacity  Prediction has lasted for 40+ years  With some minor exceptions  Transistors are very small now (<100nm)  Required Nanotechnology Research!  Exponential has lasted for 100+ years

8. 8 Speed and Cost

9. 9 45nm Node Transistors (2007) Well inside the nano realm! Fabrication of these transistors requires very precise lithography

10. 10 Fabrication  Photolithography  32nm half pitch: ~$4 Billion for fab facility  Double patterning, Immersion lithography  Electron Beam Lithography  A few nanometer feature size patterning  Limitation is scattering, not the beam!  Takes a long time, not mass production  Self Assembly  Not precise control  Instead, automatic arrangement

11. 11 Self Assembly

12. 12 Self Assembly with DNA! Using DNA, it should be possible to fabricate many patterns without lithography

13. 13 Imaging is Very Important  Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)  Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)  Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)  Why are these important?  Nano devices are unknown  behaviors, properties, & uses  All at the nano-scale  Biological processes could tell us so much!