1. Arousal Theories of arousal and the consequences

2. Arousal is a blend of physiological and psychological activity in a person, and it refers to the intensity dimensions of motivation at a particular moment. The intensity of arousal falls on a continuum ranging from not aroused at all to completely aroused. Aroused = mental and physical activation, increased heart rates, respiration and sweating.

3. Drive theory Research by Hull (1943) and Spence and Spence (1966). Research by Hull (1943) and Spence and Spence (1966). A proportional linear relationship between arousal and performance. A proportional linear relationship between arousal and performance. The more a sports person was aroused the better their performance OR P= H X D. The more a sports person was aroused the better their performance OR P= H X D. Hull thought drive was synonymous with arousal. The habit strength was a learned behaviour/ dominant response which occurred more often as drive levels increased. Hull thought drive was synonymous with arousal. The habit strength was a learned behaviour/ dominant response which occurred more often as drive levels increased.

4. Problems with Drive theory The habitual behaviour/ dominant response is not always the correct one (think of beginners) The habitual behaviour/ dominant response is not always the correct one (think of beginners) By increasing drive (arousal) performers often resort to previously learned skills because they are dominant but may be incorrect. By increasing drive (arousal) performers often resort to previously learned skills because they are dominant but may be incorrect. In later stages of learning increased drive (arousal) would have a positive effect because the dominant response is well learned. In later stages of learning increased drive (arousal) would have a positive effect because the dominant response is well learned. Even highly skilled players ‘choke’ in highly charged situations. Even highly skilled players ‘choke’ in highly charged situations. Is it possible that in low arousal/ stress situations players will not perform well, but in highly aroused situations, players will get increasingly better? Is it possible that in low arousal/ stress situations players will not perform well, but in highly aroused situations, players will get increasingly better?

5. Inverted ‘U’ theory Yerkes and Dodson (1908) Yerkes and Dodson (1908) At low levels of arousal, performance will be below par, the athlete is not psyched up. At low levels of arousal, performance will be below par, the athlete is not psyched up. As arousal increases so does performance, up to an optimal point. After this point, further increases in arousal lead to declines in performance. As arousal increases so does performance, up to an optimal point. After this point, further increases in arousal lead to declines in performance. Each athlete has their own optimal level of arousal. Each athlete has their own optimal level of arousal. Optimal arousal is higher for more simple tasks and lower for more complex tasks. Optimal arousal is higher for more simple tasks and lower for more complex tasks.

6. Problems with inverted ‘U’ theory Most athletes and coaches can relate to this theory. Most athletes and coaches can relate to this theory. Critics question if optimal arousal always occurs at the mid-point of the curve. Critics question if optimal arousal always occurs at the mid-point of the curve. One curve does not explain the different optimal levels of arousal needed for simple and complex tasks. One curve does not explain the different optimal levels of arousal needed for simple and complex tasks.

7. Catastrophe Model Hardy and Frazey (1987) Hardy and Frazey (1987) Physiological arousal is related to performance in an inverted ‘U’ fashion when the athlete is not worried or has low cognitive anxiety state anxiety. Physiological arousal is related to performance in an inverted ‘U’ fashion when the athlete is not worried or has low cognitive anxiety state anxiety. If cognitive anxiety is high, the increases in arousal pass a point of optimal arousal and a rapid decline in performance occurs (the catastrophe). If cognitive anxiety is high, the increases in arousal pass a point of optimal arousal and a rapid decline in performance occurs (the catastrophe). It would be very difficult to recover from this point. It would be very difficult to recover from this point.