1. Section 1: Classical Conditioning
Chapter 6: Learning
Section 1: Classical Conditioning

2. Terms associated with learning:
Stimulus: something that produces a reaction or response
Response: a reaction
Conditioning: learning

3. terms continued…
Unconditioned Stimulus: a stimulus that causes a response that is automatic
Unconditioned Response: automatic reaction (not learned)
Conditioned Stimulus: a learned stimulus
Conditioned Response: learned reaction

4. Related Concepts of Classical Conditioning:
Taste Aversions: a learned avoidance of a particular food
ex: when I was little I loved pickles and would eat them a lot. One day I ate a whole jar and it made me sick to my stomach and I vomited. After that for many months just the sight or smell of pickles made my stomach sick.
US: eating a whole jar of pickles
UR: sick stomach
CS: sight or smell of pickles
CR: sick stomach

5. Extinction:
When a conditioned stimulus eventually losses its ability to bring about a conditioned response.
Experimenter kept ringing bell and eventually the dog no longer salivated to the bell only.

6. Spontaneous Recovery:
When a conditioned response occurs after extinction.
Extinction had occurred, a day or two had passed during which the dogs did not hear the bell at all. After this rest period, the bell was rung and caused salivation (not as much saliva produced, but some)

7. Generalization:
Act of responding in the same ways to stimuli that seem to be similar, even if the stimuli are not identical.
ex. My dad use to call us home with a whistle. One day another dad whistled, however, I thought it was mine and went home.

8. Discrimination:
Responding differently to stimuli that are not similar to each other.
ex. Response to fire bell is different to your response to the bell that changes classes.

9. Application of Classical Conditioning:
Flooding: exposed to the harmless stimulus until fear is extinguished.
Systematic Desensitization: relaxation techniques designed to gradually expose you to whatever stimulus you fear while keeping you very relaxed
Counterconditioning: pairing a pleasant stimulus repeatedly with a fearful one
Bell-and-Pad method: technique used to help kids who have a problem with bed wetting… pad has an alarm that sounds with even a drop of urine… conditions the child to get up and use the restroom

10. Section 2 Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning: is learning from the consequences of ones’ actions.
Voluntary responses are conditioned
Project Pigeon:
Trained to guide missiles during WWII
Never used

11. Reinforcement: process by which a stimulus increases the likelihood that a preceding behavior will occur again.
Primary: Food, water and adequate warmth
Secondary: stimulus that has been associated with something that satisfies a need
Ex. Money
Positive: when presented this type of reinforcement strengthens a response
Ex. Feeding the pigeon if he moves in the correct direction
Negative: this type of reinforcement strengthens a response by its absence
Ex. The absence of the electrical shock in the area of a box that you want a rat to stay in.

12. Rewards: increase the frequency of a behavior.
can be used interchangeably with the term positive reinforcement.
generally the shorter the time in receiving the reward after a correct response, the more likely it is that an organism will learn that response.
Punishments: providing a negative stimulus after the behavior has occurred

13. Schedules of Reinforcement:
Two types of schedules:
Continuous:
Reinforcement of a behavior every time the behavior occurs…since this is not practical…a lot of times the behavior is short lived and will disappear very quickly if the reinforcement stops for any period of time
Partial or Intermittent:
Behavior is not reinforced every time the behavior occurs, instead, it is given intermittently…the behavior learned through this type of reinforcement tends to last longer after the reinforcement ends

14. Two categories of Partial Reinforcement:
Interval Schedule:
Is determined by the time between reinforcement of the behavior
Ratio Schedule:
Depends on the number of correct responses that must be made before reinforcement occurs
Each of these can be fixed or variable

15. Variable-Ratio: the number of responses between reinforcement varies
Fixed-Ratio: the organism is reinforced for a fixed number of responses
Ex. Every 2nd correct response
Variable-Ratio: the number of responses between reinforcement varies
Ex. 1st, 5th, 8th, etc.
Fixed-Interval: response is reinforced after a fixed or set time period
Ex. Every 3 minutes, Every year first semester
Variable-Interval: time between reinforcements varies throughout the procedure
Ex. 30 sec, 35 sec, 60 sec…etc

16. Extinction:
Results from repeated performance of the response without reinforcement
Ex. Rat in Skinner box will eventually stop pressing the bar if no reinforcement (food) is given
A technique used to teach complex behaviors by reinforcing small steps in the right direction
Shaping:

17. Programmed Learning Classroom Discipline See example
Some teachers training courses instruct teachers to ignore bad behavior so that the behavior will eventually become extinct and only reinforce positive behavior
Classroom Discipline

18. Section 3: Cognitive Factors in Learning
Cognitive Psychologists see learning as purposeful, not mechanical.
People and animals can learn by thinking about something, or by watching others.
Two kinds of learning that involve cognitive factors are:
Latent Learning
Observational Learning

19. Latent Learning Learning that remains hidden until needed.
Creating mental pictures or cognitive maps.
On a piece of paper draw the layout of one of the following:
McDonalds
Subway
China Wok
Your Home

20. Observational Learning
Albert Bandura:
We acquire knowledge and skills by observing, and imitating others.
Most psychologists agree that media plays a role in shaping behavior.

21. Section 4: PQ4R Method
Students learn more when they take a more active approach to learning:
This can be accomplished through the PQ4R method.
Six Steps laid out by Francis Robinson
Preview
Question
Read
Reflect
Recite
Review