1. Long-term Memory Encoding and retrieval

2. Long-term memory Basically includes anything retained that did not occur few moments earlier Source of information that does not come from the environment

3. Learning Storage of information in memory as a consequence of experience Process of acquiring new associations among stimuli, responses and outcomes. What is Learned? How is it Learned? Associative theories Cognitive theories

4. Classical Conditioning Characterized by the generalization of a fixed or previously learned behavior Responses are elicited from Stimuli Some terminology Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response

5. Some terminology Unconditioned stimulus (US) Elicits a response without training Shock Unconditioned Response (UR) Elicited without training by a (US) Smacking whoever gave you the shock Conditioned Stimulus (CS) That which through training elicits a particular response Pretty flowers Conditioned Response (CR)* Response to the conditioned stimulus Smacking whoever gives you pretty flowers Or conditional, as Pavlov originally meant.

6. Properties of Classical Conditioning Acquisition Process of acquiring CS-CR association Extinction If CS is presented without US then the CR will eventually become extinct Generalization The degree to which an individual will respond to a similar (but not identical) CS Discrimination The process of reducing generalization Eliciting a specific CR to a specific CS

7. Factors that affect Classical Conditioning The Laws of Association Contiguity Frequency Intensity

8. Factors that Affect Classical Conditioning Contiguity Temporal relation of the stimuli Time between and order of the CS & US Conditioning is best when the CS precedes and continues in the presence of the US

9. Factors that Affect Classical Conditioning Contingency CS must meaningfully predict the US Functional relation between CS and US However… there is superstition. Must at least seem meaningful Preparedness Biopreparedness – organisms are "biologically prepared" or "genetically tuned" to develop certain conditioned associations Such a system of learning has adaptive value, and such predispositions can aid survival Prior experience Blocking

10. Examples of Applications of Classical Conditioning Systematic Desensitization Counterconditioning Pairing unpleasant stimuli with pleasant in hopes of reducing response to unpleasant stimuli Aversion Therapy Associating fear stimuli to some undesired behavior in order to eliminate it Clockwork Orange: Violence and nausea

11. Operant conditioning B. F. Skinner Look! It’s grandpa and he’s come to take your free will away!

12. Operant / Instrumental Conditioning Based on the principle of reinforcement What is reinforced? What is reinforcing? Development of associations between particular responses and consequences of the response (outcomes).

13. Thordike’s Puzzle Box See how long it takes for a cat to ‘figure it out’ Takes a long time at first… But eventually will escape Takes less time the next go around, and after that Law of effect “Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected with the situation, so that, when it recurs, they will more likely recur… The greater the satisfaction… the greater the strengthening… of the bond.

14. Basic Mechanisms of Operant Conditioning Behaviors have consequences. Consequences are contingent on behaviors. Organisms adapt behavior to match contingencies. Consequences usually satisfy a “drive” Biological need Motivational need (bio+attractiveness) Well-being of individual

15. Consequences of Behavior Reinforcement or Punishment Reinforcement Consequences of behavior increase the probability of response (behavior) Punishment Consequences of behavior decreases the probability of response

16. Reinforcement and Punishment Both Reinforcement and Punishment can be positive or negative Positive – presentation of stimuli Negative – removal of stimuli The result is a table of contingencies.

17. Reinforcement and Punishment Response Stimulus Increase (rein.)Decrease (pun.) Apply a stimulus (+) Remove a stimulus(-) Positive Reinforcement (reward) Positive Punishment (punishment) Negative Reinforcement Negative Punishment (omission)

18. Properties That Affect the Level of Conditioning Quality of the Reinforcer Amount of Reinforcer Food Money Better Quality Reinforcer Taste of food Experience with Other Reinforcers Contrast Effect Change the quality/quantity of the reinforcer during the course of conditioning Condition a rat to run the T-maze with 1.0 gram of food. Next few trials use only 0.5 gram of food. Rat slows running.

19. Properties That Affect the Level of Conditioning Strength of Drive Satisfaction of Drive Most lab participants are deprived before conditioning begins. Motivation How might the behaviorist explain intrinsic motivations? Maybe this particular rat just fancies running in mazes?

20. Properties That Affect the Level of Conditioning Reinforcement Contingencies Continuous Reinforcement A response always yields reinforcement Most rapid conditioning Not long-term conditioning As soon as reinforcement is removed, response rapidly declines Partial Reinforcement Response sometimes yields reinforcement Slower learning than continuous reinforcement Long-term learning

21. Schedule of Reinforcement Fixed  Every N responses/time yields reinforcement Variable Response-Reinforcement contingency changes over the course of Conditioning Ratio Reinforcement is based on the number of responses Interval Reinforcement is based on passage of time Examples Fixed ratio: free coffee at jazzman’s Variable ratio: slot machine Fixed interval: checking mailbox Variable interval: checking email

22. Concept of Association Associations from conditioning represent predictive probabilities of functionally relevant (meaningful) events. Predictive Probability is defined as the Strength of Association Strength of Association follows the Power Law

23. Power Law Associative strength is a product of … Strength # of Pairings

24. Power Law Number of positive pairings divided by the number of negative pairings CS Alone US Alone or with other CS Response with no reinforcement The relative contributions of contextual strength to background strength Acquired strength vs. Background experience Repetition

25. Associative Learning Accounts for certain types of memory phenomena Memory Structure Highly practiced information Habitual responses Stimulus generalization Assumes memory mechanism is the same as associative mechanism (single system)

26. Associative Memory Associative memory theory alone cannot account so well for other phenomena Free Recall No cue Subjective organization Von Restorff Effect Effect of stronger memory for a salient item in a series Sensory Memory “Direct” memory of sensory information Short-term representations No Practice Complexity of language acquisition/production Systematic memory distortions

27. Beyond association Although simple associative mechanisms described by classical and operant conditioning may account for some aspects of learning, more was needed Subtle shift from learning theories to theories of memory, which emphasized knowledge representation in an information processing system Focused on encoding and retrieval processes to help explain memory performance in a variety of settings Levels of Processing Encoding specificity Transfer appropriate processing

28. Basic Mechanisms of Memory Encoding Acquisition of Information “Learning” ? Maintenance Retaining information Retrieval Using information How do the processes of Encoding and Retrieval influence what is remembered?

29. Levels of Processing Craik & Lockhart (1972) Formalized the notion of “depth” of processing and demonstrated how it affects memory. There are “depths” to which information can be processed Shallow: encoding information in terms of its physical or sensory characteristics Deep: encoding information in terms of meaning Levels (for words) Structural Is it all caps? Shallow Phonetic Does it rhyme with _? Semantic Is it an animal? Deep

30. Levels of Processing Craik & Tulving (1975) Incidental memory task (Ss unaware a memory test was coming) 3 processing tasks Case: Is the word in capital letters? BOOK Rhyme: Does the work rhyme with fate? LATE Sentence: Does the word fit the sentence: He met a __________ in the pub? FRIEND

31. Levels of Processing Results Proportion correctly recognized 0 100 CAPS?Rhyme?Sentence?

32. Levels of Processing Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker (1977) Presentation 40 Adjectives 4 blocks of 10 adjectives In each block, participants performed different encoding tasks for each adjective. Is it in CAPITAL letters? Does it rhyme with X? Is it a synonym of Y? Does it describe you? Test Incidental recall task

33. Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker (1977) People tend to recall more information when they relate the information to themselves. The concept of self has a rich and organized set of internal cues to which information can be associated (Belezza, 1984). Mean Recall 0 10 CAPS?Rhyme?Synonym?You?

34. Levels of Processing Such results suggests that deeper levels of processing produce more permanent retention than shallow levels of processing. Distinctiveness and elaboration may be responsible for the effectiveness of deep levels of processing The self-reference task encourages especially deep levels of processing, resulting in enhanced memory. Self-reference instructions may encourage greater organization, and the self may serve as a rich source of associations. Other results Intention to learn does not change LOP pattern of results (Hyde & Jenkins, 1973) Generation effect (Slamecka and Graf, 1978) Problem: What is “deep” and what is “shallow?” Circular logic If processing is deep then retention will be better. If retention was better, then processing must have been deeper. There is no precise way to measure ‘depth’

35. Perspective The purpose of encountering information influences what information is encoded. Anderson & Pichert (1978) Had people listen to the description of a house Gave participants different perspectives (roles) for considering the description Home Buyer Burglar Analyzed the proportion recalled of target items from different perspectives

36. Identity Items Proportion Recalled Recall #1 Perspective

37. Distracter task, then switch perspectives and try to recall again Items First identity/second identity Change in proportion recalled Perspective

38. Had people switch perspective and they could then recall info they previously had not. Perhaps the perspective serves as a selection criteria at retrieval. So memory performance depends on … How something is encoded And the purpose for which it is retrieved. Information is remembered best if it is retrieved in a manner that is consistent with which it was encoded Encoding Specificity Principle Transfer-Appropriate Processing

39. Encoding Effects Encoding-Specificity Principle Information is available to the extent to which retrieval matches encoding Tulving and Thomson, (1973)

40. Step 1: Study List (with weak associates as cues) headLIGHT bathNEED prettyBLUE graspBABY whiskeyWATER cabbageROUND spiderBIRD glueCHAIR Tulving & Thomson

41. Step 2: Free-association (to strong cues of TBRs) dark night light black room wantneed desire wish get skysun cloud blue open infantchild mother love baby lakewater smooth river ocean squareround flat circle corner eagleeye mountain bird high tablechair desk lamp top Tulving & Thomson

42. Step 3: Recognition test for associations darknight light black room wantneed desire wish get skysun cloud blue open infantchild mother love baby lakewater smooth river ocean squareround flat circle corner eagleeye mountain bird high tablechair desk lamp top Tulving & Thomson

43. Step 4: Cued-recall test (weak associates as cues) head_______ bath_______ pretty_______ grasp_______ whiskey_______ cabbage_______ spider_______ glue_______ Tulving & Thomson

44. One would expect that any item recalled in phase 4 would also have been recognized in phase 3 (because recall involves recognition stage) This was not the case - 59% of items were recalled, 22% of initial list words generated were recognized

45. Tulving & Thomson Why? The first stage established the association between cue and target The recognition test did not match the encoding context Targets were now associated with other words In the recall stage, the context matched the encoding phase

46. Morris, Bransford, & Franks (1977) Had people make one of two judgments at presentation Shallow: Rhyming (Does it rhyme with hat?) Deep: Semantic (Does it have a tail?) Two test conditions Recognition Rhyming “Hat” “Did you see a word that rhymes with X?” Test Condition either matched or mismatched original encoding

47. Morris, Bransford, & Franks Rhyme Semantic Recognition TEST PRESENTATION + +- -

48. Morris, Bransford, & Franks LOP effect for standard test. But opposite for rhyming test Deep processing does not always enhance memory

49. Transfer Appropriate Processing Memory performance depends on the extent to which processes used at the time of learning are the same as those used when memory is tested. LOP approach assumed that semantic processing was always superior to non-semantic processing The transfer appropriate processing approach demonstrates that a form of encoding which is “shallow” for one purpose might be “deep” for another. Conclusion Memory not just a function of depth of processing Depends also on the match between encoding processes and type of test

50. Interaction of Encoding and Retrieval Context Congruency Godden & Baddeley Divers memorized a list of words Half learned the words on dry land Half learned words underwater Tested either on dry land or underwater

51. Interaction of Encoding and Retrieval

52. Recap LEVELS OF PROCESSING emphasizes operations at encoding semantic/elaborative processing better for LTM ENCODING SPECIFICITY emphasizes that information about retrieval cue must be encoded at study for cue to be effective TRANSFER APPROPRIATE PROCESSING memory best when processes at test match processes used at study *For another view, see Nairne, 2002

53. Different Methods of Retrieval What is your name? Automatic What is the Capital of Australia? Generate & recognize What are you doing next Tuesday at 1200? Schema + Search What is the layout of your house? Spatial Is “FLORB” a word? Direct access What was Beethoven’s telephone number? Knowledge

54. Basic Mechanisms General Principles of Memory Strength Background Contextual Congruity Between encoding and retrieval Organization Distinctiveness Segregate item in memory Spacing Massed vs. Distributed Recency and Primacy

55. Spacing Old rule: Spacing learning enhances recall Bahrick family and foreign language learning 

56. Spacing Why does it work? Varying encodings may lead to more associations Reminds of earlier presentation, so may reinforce earlier learning (perhaps increasing baseline activation)

57. Recency and Primacy Demonstrated in the serial-position curve Learn a list of items in order…..and reproduce the list in order

58. Recency and Primacy Serial-Position Effect Position in List Proportion Recalled 0 100 Beg.Mid.End

59. Recency and Primacy Primacy Memory advantage for items initially encountered. Rehearsal? Distinctiveness? Recency Memory advantage for items recently encountered. Working memory?

60. Retrieval Many different theories about how retrieval takes place. Information Processing Theories Modal Model, LOP, TAP Associative Theories ACT-R, TODAM Search Models SAM, REM Trace Theories Perturbation Model Connectionist Models PDP, EPIC Biological-Based Theories HERA, CARA

61. Retrieval Differ… What and how information is retrieved. Veridical representation Or translation Memory trace Reconstruction Share… Emphasis on information available at retrieval. Cues Partial information Contextual information Something guides retrieval. Memory as a Decision