1. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 6 Learning This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images Any rental, lease or lending of the program. ISBN: 0-131-73180-7

2. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Learning Learning – A process through which experience produces lasting change in behavior or mental processes This is in contrast with instinct (species-typical behavior). Humans behavior is much more influenced by learning than instinct compared to animals. Habituation (an example of simple learning)– Learning not to respond to repeated presentation of a stimulus

3. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Behavioral learning – Forms of learning that can be described in terms of stimuli and responses (e.g. classical and operant conditioning) Learning Mere exposure effect (another example of simple learning)– Learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed

4. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus, which then acquires the power to elicit essentially the same response What Sort of Learning Does Classical Conditioning Explain?

5. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning—Ivan Pavlov Neutral stimulus – Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning Acquisition – Initial learning stage in classical conditioning; conditioned response becomes elicited by the conditioned stimulus

6. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS)

7. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) The stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response

8. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) The response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning

9. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response

10. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) A response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus

11. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Classical Conditioning Prior to conditioning Conditioning After conditioning Neutral stimulus (tone) (Orientation to sound but no response) Unconditioned stimulus (food powder in mouth) Unconditioned response (salivation) Neutral stimulus CS (tone) Unconditioned stimulus (food powder) + Conditioned response (salivation) Conditioned stimulus (tone) Conditioned response (salivation)

12. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Classical Conditioning Extinction – Weakening of a conditioned response in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus Spontaneous recovery – Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay. Usually this reappears at a lower intensity.

13. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery (1) Acquisition (CS + UCS) (3) Spontaneous Recovery (CS alone) Rest period (2) Extinction (CS alone) (Time) Trials Strength of the CR (Weak) (Strong)

14. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Classical Conditioning: Generalization and Discrimination Stimulus generalization involves giving a conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the CS Stimulus discrimination involves responding to one stimulus but not another that is similar Confusing stimuli may cause experimental neurosis John Watson/Rosalie Rayner and Little Albert

15. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Applications of Classical Conditioning Taste-aversion learning – Biological tendency in which an organism learns to avoid food with a certain taste after a single experience, if eating it is followed by illness (examples of John Garcia’s study and chemotherapy).

16. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning? In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior, such as rewards and punishments, influence the chance that our behavior will occur again

17. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning? Trial-and-error learning – Learner gradually discovers the correct response by attempting many behaviors and noting which ones produce the desired consequences…Law of effect— Edward Thorndike

18. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism B.F. Skinner (a radical behaviorist) believed that the most powerful influences on behavior are its consequences; he called these reinforcers…he developed the “Skinner Box” or operant chamber (a box in which an animal can press a lever for food).

19. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Power of Reinforcement Positive reinforcers – Stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again Negative reinforcers – Removal of an unpleasant stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior. Again this increases the probability that the behavior will occur again.

20. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Power of Reinforcement Primary reinforcers – Reinforcers, such as food, water, and sex, that have an innate basis because of their biological value to an organism

21. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Power of Reinforcement Secondary reinforcers – Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that acquire their reinforcing power by their learned association with primary reinforcers (also called conditioned reinforcers)

22. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Contingencies of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced…this is best for teaching and learning new behaviors Partial reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced (also called intermittent reinforcement)…this is best to maintain behaviors already learned

23. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Contingencies of Reinforcement Extinction – In operant conditioning, a process by which a response that has been learned is weakened by the absence or removal of reinforcement

24. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Schedules of Reinforcement (intermittent or partial) Ratio schedules – Provide reward after a certain number of responses Interval schedules – Provide reward after a certain time interval Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI)

25. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain set number of responses…the rate of responding is high e.g. factory workers getting paid after every 10 cases of product that are completed

26. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain number of responses, but that number varies from trial to trial…this keeps the number of responses high e.g. slot machine pay- offs

27. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain fixed amount of time, regardless of number of responses…the rate of response is low e.g. weekly or monthly paychecks

28. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain amount of time, but that amount varies from trial to trial…the response rate can be low or high but not as high as VR e.g. random visits from the boss who delivers praise

29. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Premack Principle David Premack…rats learned that their running would be followed by an opportunity to drink...so this principle states that a more-preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity.

30. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Problem of Punishment Punishment – An aversive stimulus which diminishes the strength of the response it follows How does this differ from negative reinforcement?

31. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement Loud NoisePress Lever Loud Noise Removed Loud Noise Applied Response Consequence Negative Reinforcement Punishment No Noise

32. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Problem of Punishment Positive punishment – The application of an aversive stimulus after a response Negative punishment (omission training) – The removal of an appetitive stimulus after a response

33. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Four Kinds of Consequences Positive or appetitive Negative or aversive STIMULUS - Remove Negative Reinforcement Aspirin curing headache causes more aspirin use Omission Training Missing dinner leads to less loitering after school + Present Positive Reinforcement Bonus for working hard leads to more hard work Punishment Getting speeding ticket leads to less speeding

34. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Use and Abuse of Punishment Power usually disappears when threat of punishment is removed Punishment Often triggers aggression May inhibit learning new and better responses Is often applied unequally When does punishment work? It should be swift, certain, limited, target the behavior…usually omission training is best

35. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Operant and Classical Conditioning Compared Classical conditioning involves the association of two stimuli (UCS + CS) before the response or behavior. The learner is passive. Operant conditioning involves a reinforcing (reward) or punishing stimulus after a response or behavior. The learner is active.

36. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning? According to cognitive psychology, some forms of learning must be explained as changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior alone

37. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning? Insight learning – Problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions (Gestalt psychologist Wolfgang Kohler and chimpanzee experiments) Cognitive maps – A mental representation of physical space (Edward Tolman)…rats maneuvered blocked paths, flooding, and no reward still meant learning was taking place.

38. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Observational Learning: Albert Bandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism Observational learning (social learning)– Form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others’ behavior and the consequences of their behavior (BoBo doll experiment with children watching adults)

39. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Brain Mechanisms and Learning Long-term potentiation – Biological process involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells; believed to be the neural basis of learning… There may be two different circuits for learning in our brains; different perspectives of learning might be right in their own way…

40. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 End of Chapter 6